At Semicon India 2025, the Prime Minister of India was presented with the indigenously developed “Vikram 3201” launch vehicle grade microprocessor. This marks a significant step in India’s journey towards self-reliance in the semiconductor sector and space technology. 

1. Development Background
   • Developed by: 
     • ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) 
     • Semiconductor Laboratory (SCL), Chandigarh 
   • Designed alongside KALPANA-3201, a 32-bit microprocessor compatible with open-source software tools. 
   • Advanced version of VIKRAM1601 (16-bit microprocessor), which has been in use since 2009 in ISRO’s launch vehicle avionics. 
2. Key Technical Features
   • 32-bit microprocessor capable of handling complex computations. 
   • Extreme temperature resilience: operates from -55°C to +125°C. 
   • Custom Instruction Set Architecture, tailored specifically for the Ada programming language used in safety-critical systems. 
   • Equipped with floating-point computation capabilities to handle advanced navigation and control tasks. 
3. Testing and Validation
   • Initial space testing conducted during the SpaDeX mission (PSLV-C60 mission). 
   • The test confirmed its reliability and robustness for future Indian space missions. 
4. Significance and Impact
   • Enables self-reliance in navigation, guidance, and control systems of launch vehicles. 
   • Reduces dependency on imported microprocessors. 
   • Strengthens “Make in India” and Atmanirbhar Bharat missions. 
   • Enhances cost-effectiveness, security, and technological sovereignty of India’s space missions.
     “Vikram 3201” is not just a microprocessor but a symbol of India’s technological independence in both the semiconductor and space sectors. It strengthens India’s position in global semiconductor manufacturing while ensuring strategic autonomy in space exploration. 

In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single, uniform mental ability, but rather it manifests in diverse forms. Each type of intelligence is independent of the others, meaning that excelling in one area does not necessarily imply strength or weakness in another. 

Gardner also emphasized that in solving real-life problems, different intelligences interact and work together. Based on his research, he identified nine distinct intelligences. 

• Nine Intelligences Described by Gardner 
  1. Naturalist Intelligence 
     This intelligence allows individuals to recognize, classify, and interact sensitively with the natural world—plants, animals, weather, rocks, and ecological systems. Biologists, environmentalists, and farmers often exhibit strong naturalist intelligence. 
  2. Musical Intelligence 
     It enables people to perceive, appreciate, and create rhythms, melodies, and harmonies. Musicians, composers, and singers demonstrate this ability. Musical intelligence is deeply connected with emotions and also shares certain processes with mathematical thinking. 
  3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 
     This intelligence involves the capacity to calculate, reason abstractly, form hypotheses, and derive logical conclusions. It is typically well developed in mathematicians, scientists, engineers, and detectives. 
  4. Existential Intelligence 
     This form of intelligence reflects the ability to ponder profound questions about life, death, and existence. Questions like “Why are we here?” or “What is the meaning of life?” fall under this domain. Philosophers and spiritual seekers often exhibit this intelligence. 
  5. Interpersonal Intelligence 
     The ability to understand and effectively interact with others, including sensitivity to their moods, feelings, and intentions. It involves both verbal and non-verbal communication. Teachers, leaders, social workers, and actors are strong examples. 
  6. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence 
     This is the ability to control one’s body movements skillfully and handle objects effectively. It involves coordination, balance, timing, and physical expression. Athletes, dancers, artisans, and craftspeople demonstrate this intelligence. 
  7. Linguistic Intelligence 
     The capacity to think in words, use language effectively, and express complex meanings through speaking, writing, and storytelling. Poets, novelists, journalists, and effective speakers are prime examples. 
  8. Intra-personal Intelligence 
     The ability to deeply understand oneself—one’s emotions, thoughts, strengths, and weaknesses—and to use this self-awareness to guide decision-making and life direction. Psychologists, philosophers, and spiritual leaders often possess this intelligence. 
  9. Spatial Intelligence 
     This intelligence involves the ability to visualize, think in three dimensions, and manipulate mental images. It includes skills in design, drawing, mapping, and imaginative visualization. Painters, sculptors, pilots, architects, and sailors often excel here. 
     Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences highlights that every individual is unique and possesses a distinct combination of abilities. Recognizing and nurturing these diverse intelligences in education, work, and society fosters not only individual growth but also collective progress. 

India’s BioE3 Policy (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment), launched in 2024, aims to position biotechnology as a major driver of sustainable growth, innovation, and employment. To strengthen this vision, the Ministry of Science & Technology inaugurated the National Biofoundry Network, comprising six premier institutions that bridge research and industry, promote high-value bio-manufacturing, and provide shared infrastructure for startups, SMEs, and researchers. The initiative aligns with India’s broader green development goals, supporting eco-friendly, circular, and inclusive economic growth. 

• National Biofoundry Network: 
  • 6 institutions collaborating to scale innovations from lab to industry and strengthen bio-manufacturing 
  • Support for startups, SMEs, and researchers via shared pilot & pre-commercial facilities 
• Bioeconomy (Bioeconomics): 
  • Definition: Using science, technology, and innovation to produce, utilize, and conserve biological resources for sustainable products, processes, and services 
  • Growth: USD 10B (2014) → USD 165.7B (2024), target USD 300B by 2030 
• Significance: 
  • Bio-agriculture: Climate-smart crops, biofertilizers, biopesticides, precision farming 
  • Energy security: Ethanol blending 20% by 2025 → reduces crude imports, CO₂ emissions; saves ₹1.36 lakh crore 
  • Entrepreneurship: Biotech startups grew from 50 → 10,000+, boosting innovation & employment 
• BioE3 Policy Highlights: 
  • Promote advanced bio-manufacturing and high-value bio-products 
  • Establish BioEnablers (AI hubs, biofoundries, manufacturing hubs) 
  • Train skilled human resources in interdisciplinary biotechnology 
• Impact Areas: 
  • Biopharma: Vaccine production, India supplies 65% of global vaccines 
  • Bio-agriculture: Climate-resilient crops, Biotech-KISAN enhances farmer income 
  • Bioenergy: Ethanol blending → rural livelihoods, reduced imports 
• Challenges: 
  • Limited funding, high initial investment 
  • Regulatory, ethical, and environmental concerns 
  • Skills gap in bioinformatics & bio-manufacturing 
• Way Forward: 
  • Simplify regulations, encourage private investment & PPP 
  • Promote commercialization and innovation 
  • Strengthen human capital and Centers of Excellence 

 BioE3 Policy and the National Biofoundry Network are pivotal in shaping a sustainable, innovation-driven bioeconomy in India. By fostering research, commercialization, entrepreneurship, and green technologies, these initiatives aim to enhance economic growth, energy security, ecological balance, and India’s global biotech presence, while creating inclusive opportunities across sectors and regions. 

The foundations of British colonial rule in America were laid during the reign of James I in 1607, with the establishment of the first colony in Virginia. Over time, thirteen colonies emerged. However, Britain’s exploitative policies, especially harsh taxation and trade restrictions, created growing resentment among the colonists. 

• Beginning of the War of Independence 
  The immediate cause of the struggle was the Boston Tea Party (16 December 1773), where colonists dumped British tea into the harbor in protest against unfair taxation. This incident, led by Samuel Adams, sparked a nationwide movement. The popular slogan of the time was: “No taxation without representation.” 
• Declaration of Independence and Outcome 
  • On 4 July 1776, the thirteen colonies formally declared independence. 
  • George Washington led the American forces and later became the first President of the United States. 
  • In 1781, British commander Lord Cornwallis surrendered. 
  • The war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which recognized America’s independence. 
  • The new nation became the first modern republic and the first secular state. 
  • In 1789, the world’s first written constitution came into effect. 
• Human Rights and Slavery 
  America was the first country to proclaim the principles of human equality and fundamental rights. The import of slaves was declared illegal in 1808, though slavery still persisted, particularly in the southern states. 
• American Civil War (1861–1865) 
  • Abraham Lincoln became President in 1860. 
  • The Civil War began on 12 April 1861 in South Carolina. 
  • The Northern states opposed slavery, while the Southern states supported it. 
  • On 1 January 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, abolishing slavery. 
  • The war ended on 26 May 1865, resulting in the complete abolition of slavery. 
• Lincoln’s Contribution 
  • Lincoln famously defined democracy as: “Government of the people, by the people, and for the people.” 
  • He was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on 14 April 1865. 
• Other Contributions 
  • Benjamin Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society, promoting science, philosophy, and political thought. 

American War of Independence laid the foundation for modern democracy, secularism, and human rights, while the Civil War abolished slavery, turning the U.S. into a truly equal nation. Together, these historic struggles established America as the pioneer of modern democratic republics. 

In the early 19th century, Italy was fragmented into nearly 13 independent states, heavily influenced by foreign powers, especially Austria. Italians longed for political independence and cultural unity. The struggle for national unification spanned several decades and was driven by visionary leaders, revolutionary movements, and military campaigns. Finally, in 1871, Rome was declared the capital, marking the successful unification of Italy. 

Leaders and Their Contributions 

• Giuseppe Mazzini 
  • Known as the “Father of Italian Unification.” 
  • Founded the Young Italy (1831) movement to inspire revolutionary nationalism. 
  • Believed that youth must lead the revolution—his famous quote being: “If you want to bring revolution, entrust it to the youth.” 
  • Provided the ideological and democratic foundation of Italian nationalism. 
• Count Camillo di Cavour 
  • Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont; regarded as the “Brain of Italian Unification.” 
  • Strengthened Sardinia through economic and administrative reforms. 
  • Internationalized the Italian question and secured an alliance with France against Austria. 
  • His diplomatic strategy paved the way for Italy’s consolidation. 
• Giuseppe Garibaldi 
  • Revered as the “Sword of Italy.” 
  • Organized the Red Shirts militia and led daring military campaigns. 
  • Liberated Sicily and southern Italy, later handing them over to Victor Emmanuel II to strengthen national unity. 
  • Symbolized courage, patriotism, and people’s participation in the unification struggle. 
• Victor Emmanuel II 
  • King of Sardinia-Piedmont and later the first King of unified Italy. 
  • Played a unifying role by consolidating territories under a constitutional monarchy. 
• Other Contributions 
  • Carbonari Society, founded by Giverti, provided a secret revolutionary network. 
  • Napoleon Bonaparte is considered a “forerunner of Italian unity” for spreading modern administrative ideas and nationalist sentiments in Italy. 

Process of Unification 

• Began with the merger of Sardinia and Lombardy. 
• Garibaldi’s campaigns in 1860 brought southern Italy and Sicily into the fold. 
• April 2, 1860 is marked as the symbolic birth of the Italian nation. 
• In 1871, Rome was declared the capital, completing the unification. 

The unification of Italy was not the work of a single leader but the combined efforts of Mazzini (the Ideologue), Cavour (the Diplomat), Garibaldi (the Warrior), and Victor Emmanuel II (the Monarch). Their collective vision, strategy, and sacrifice transformed Italy from a fragmented region into a modern nation-state and a symbol of rising nationalism in 19th-century Europe. 

In 2025, South Australia witnessed a massive ecological disaster when Karenia mikimotoi, a bloom-forming dinoflagellate, triggered a large-scale toxic algal bloom. This event extended over 150 kilometers of coastal waters, severely affecting biodiversity hotspots such as Kangaroo Island, Yorke Peninsula, and Fleurieu Peninsula. The bloom led to the death of more than 200 marine species, including fish, shellfish, and other ecologically sensitive organisms. Such harmful algal blooms (HABs) highlight the growing vulnerability of marine ecosystems under the influence of climate change, warming oceans, and nutrient enrichment. 

Causes of Marine Mortality 

• Spread: Covered ~150 km of coastline, impacting sensitive biodiversity regions. 
• Mechanism of Toxicity: 
  • Damages gills, leading to suffocation. 
  • Attacks red blood cells, impairing oxygen transport. 
  • Disrupts nervous system, causing abnormal behavior and mass die-offs. 
• Marine Heatwaves (MHWs): 
  • Raised sea surface temperature by +2.5°C. 
  • Reduced dissolved oxygen levels (hypoxia). 
  • Accelerated algal growth, intensifying mortality. 

Marine Heatwaves (MHWs) 

• Defined as extreme warming events in oceans, where temperatures remain 3–4°C above normal for at least 5 consecutive days (sometimes weeks). 
• Effects include altering species distribution, triggering algal blooms, and increasing ecological stress. 
• Frequency and intensity are rising due to global climate change. 

Algal Bloom – Concept 

• Definition: Rapid population increase of algae in freshwater, brackish, or marine waters. 
• Appearance: Green, blue-green, red, or brown patches on water surface. 
• Types: 
  • Harmless blooms → Support aquatic food webs. 
  • Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) → Produce toxins, kill marine life, threaten humans. 
• Causes: Excess nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus), stagnant warm waters, climate change. 

Red Tide (Special Case) 

• Caused by species like Karenia brevis. 
• Turns water red/brown. 
• Produces toxins dangerous to marine organisms, fisheries, and humans (via seafood or aerosols). 

Karenia mikimotoi bloom in South Australia serves as a stark reminder of the destructive potential of harmful algal blooms. It not only devastated marine biodiversity but also disrupted fisheries, tourism, and local livelihoods. With climate change driving more frequent marine heatwaves and nutrient pollution intensifying, the risk of such ecological crises is increasing worldwide. Continuous monitoring, strict nutrient management, and adaptive climate strategies are urgently required to protect marine ecosystems and the communities that depend on them.s 

Indian Constitution lays down detailed provisions for the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts. These provisions aim to uphold the independence, efficiency, and credibility of the judiciary. Articles 124, 217, 126, 127, and 128 collectively explain the process of appointment as well as arrangements in special circumstances. 

1. Appointment of Supreme Court Judges (Article 124)

• Judges are appointed by the President of India. 
• Before the appointment, the President consults the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other judges deemed necessary. 
• This article forms the constitutional foundation of the Collegium System. 

2. Appointment of High Court Judges (Article 217)

• Judges are appointed by the President. 
• The President consults: 
  • The Chief Justice of India (CJI) 
  • The Governor of the concerned State 
  • The Chief Justice of the concerned High Court 

3. Ad-hoc Judges – Article 127

• If the required quorum of Supreme Court judges is not available: 
  • The CJI, with the President’s consent, may request a High Court judge to sit temporarily in the Supreme Court. 

4. Acting Chief Justice of India – Article 126

• When the office of the CJI is vacant or the CJI is unable to perform duties: 
  • The President may appoint the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court as the Acting CJI. 

5. Retired Judges – Article 128

• With the consent of the President, the CJI may request a retired judge of the Supreme Court to sit and act as a judge for a specified period.

The constitutional framework places the power of judicial appointments in the hands of the President, but only after mandatory consultations. In practice, however, the process operates through the Collegium System (CJI + four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court). This system was evolved and strengthened through the First, Second, and Third Judges’ Cases, which emphasized judicial primacy to ensure the independence of the judiciary. 

Bonded labour represents one of the gravest violations of human rights and dignity. In India, it is linked with issues of social justice, poverty, caste-based discrimination, and labour rights—all of which are relevant for Human Rights, Governance, Social Justice, and Research Aptitude themes in UGC NET Paper–1. The Indian Constitution, legal provisions, and international commitments together form a comprehensive framework to abolish bonded labour. 

• Constitutional Safeguards 
  • Article 21 – Right to life and personal liberty; interpreted to include the right to live with dignity. 
  • Article 23 – Explicitly prohibits human trafficking, begar, and forced labour; any contravention is unconstitutional. 
  • Article 24 – Prohibits employment of children below 14 years in factories, mines, and hazardous occupations. 
• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs): 
  • Article 42 – Ensures just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief. 
  • Article 43 – Calls for living wages and decent working conditions. 
  • Article 46 – Promotes educational and economic interests of SCs, STs, and weaker sections—most vulnerable to bonded labour. 
• Statutory Provisions 
  • Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 – Abolishes bonded labour, frees workers from obligations, and criminalizes such practices. 
  • Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986 (amended 2016) – 
    ▪ Prohibits employment of children under 14 in any occupation. 
    ▪ Restricts adolescents (14–18 years) from hazardous work. 
  • Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 – Provides care, rehabilitation, and reintegration for exploited children. 
  • Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023 – Criminalizes unlawful compulsory labour and forced labour practices. 
• International Commitments 
  • UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 1989 – Article 32 protects children from economic exploitation and hazardous work. 
  • ILO Convention 182 (1999) – Prohibits worst forms of child labour; ratified by India. 

By the end of the 15th century, there was a great demand in Europe for the spices, silk, valuable metals, and luxury goods of the Eastern countries. The Italian city-states—especially Venice and Genoa—had become extremely prosperous through maritime trade. Inspired by this prosperity, the Portuguese also wished to establish direct trade relations with India. At that time, the traditional land routes and the Mediterranean Sea route were under the control of the Turks, due to which European traders had to pay heavy taxes. Therefore, it became necessary to discover a new sea route to reach India. 

With this objective, the King of Portugal, Immanuel (King Manuel I), sent the famous navigator Vasco da Gama to find a sea route to India. This voyage, which began from Lisbon in July 1497, proceeded along the western coast of Africa and then around the Cape of Good Hope. After a difficult sea journey of about ten months, Vasco da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut (modern Kozhikode) on 20 May 1498. This date is considered a significant milestone in European maritime history. 

In Calicut, Vasco da Gama held discussions with the Zamorin (the local ruler) and succeeded in obtaining permission to conduct trade. Thus, the arrival of the Portuguese opened the door to direct European trade and eventually paved the way for European colonial influence in India. 

PM e-VIDYA is a comprehensive digital education initiative launched by the Government of India to realize the vision of “One Nation, One Digital Platform.” This scheme brings together students, teachers, and schools on a unified platform and paves the way for making education digital, inclusive, accessible, and multilingual. It has enabled the democratization of education, ensuring that learners from all sections of society and with diverse abilities have access to quality educational resources. 

• Key Components 

1) DIKSHA (Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing) 

• A national digital infrastructure for school education. 
• Provides quality e-content and QR-coded textbooks for classes 1–12. 
• Offers teacher training modules and interactive learning resources. 

2) DIKSHA Portal and Mobile App 

• Functions as a digital library. 
• Repository of e-books and resources uploaded by States/UTs and national bodies. 

3) PM e-VIDYA DTH TV Channels 

• Expanded from 12 channels to 200 channels. 
• Covers classes 1–12. 
• Provides content in multiple Indian languages, respecting linguistic diversity. 

4) CBSE Podcast – “Shiksha Vani” 

• Disseminates knowledge via Radio, Community Radio, and Podcasts. 
• Includes study materials, exam tips, and interactive discussions for students. 

5) DAISY (Digitally Accessible Information System) 

• Special e-content designed for visually and hearing-impaired students. 
• Sign language-based content available on NIOS website and YouTube. 
• Ensures inclusiveness in digital education. 

6) Virtual Labs and Skill e-Labs 

• 750 Virtual Labs for Science and Mathematics (classes 6–12). 
• 75 Skill e-Labs to promote vocational learning, creativity, and critical thinking. 
• A separate vertical available on the DIKSHA platform. 

7) Samagra Shiksha (ICT Initiative) 

• A centrally sponsored scheme. 
• Provides ICT-based education for government and aided schools (classes 6–12). 

8) SATHEE Portal 

• Developed in collaboration with IIT Kanpur. 
• Acts as a support platform for students preparing for competitive examinations. 

PM e-VIDYA initiative is a step towards realizing “One Nation, One Digital Platform for Education.” Its primary goal is to make education digital, accessible, multilingual, and inclusive, so that every learner can access quality content with equal opportunity. The direct beneficiaries include students, teachers, visually/hearing-impaired learners, as well as aspirants of competitive examinations. Ultimately, this scheme ensures the democratization of education by making high-quality educational content available to all across the country. 

The revenue system in India during the colonial period underwent significant changes as the British sought to maximize their revenue from the subcontinent. The primary focus was on land revenue, which was the main source of income for the British administration. 

• Important Facts about the Colonial Revenue System in India: 
  • Permanent Settlement (1793): 
    Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, the Permanent Settlement, also known as the Zamindari system, fixed the land revenue permanently. Zamindars, or landowners, were made responsible for collecting taxes from the peasants and paying a fixed amount to the British government. While it ensured a stable revenue for the British, it often led to the exploitation of peasants, as Zamindars demanded high rents to meet their obligations. 
  • Ryotwari System: 
    Introduced primarily in Madras and Bombay presidencies by Thomas Munro, the Ryotwari system was based on direct settlement between the government and the individual cultivators (ryots). Land revenue was assessed based on the land's potential productivity, and cultivators were responsible for paying taxes directly to the government. This system provided some flexibility and direct contact with farmers but often led to high tax burdens and frequent reassessments. 
  • Mahalwari System (1822): 
    Implemented in the North-Western Provinces, Punjab, and parts of Central India, the Mahalwari system was introduced by William Bentinck and modified by Holt Mackenzie. In this system, the revenue settlement was made with entire villages (mahals) rather than individuals. The village headmen or landlords were responsible for collecting and paying the taxes. This system aimed to combine the benefits of both the Zamindari and Ryotwari systems but often resulted in over-assessment and increased burden on peasants. 
  • Economic Impact: 
    The colonial revenue systems had a profound economic impact on Indian agriculture and rural society.  
    • High and inflexible revenue demands led to widespread indebtedness among farmers, reduced agricultural productivity, and frequent famines.  
    • The emphasis on cash crops for export, such as indigo and opium, further destabilized traditional agricultural practices and food security. 
  • Social Consequences:
    • The British revenue policies exacerbated social inequalities.  
    • The Zamindari system strengthened the power of landlords at the expense of peasants, leading to increased social stratification.  
    • In many regions, the loss of traditional rights and communal landholding practices disrupted rural communities and led to social unrest. 
  • Legacy: 
    The legacy of the colonial revenue systems persisted long after independence in 1947, influencing post-colonial land reforms and agricultural policies. Efforts to abolish Zamindari and redistribute land were partly aimed at addressing the deep-seated issues created during the colonial period. 

       The colonial revenue systems in India were designed to serve British economic interests, often at the cost of the Indian agrarian economy and society. They left a lasting impact on India's rural landscape, influencing both the economic conditions and social structures of the time.

All living organisms are made up of cells. Based on their structural organization, cells are classified into two main types – Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells. 

1) Prokaryotic cells are the most ancient, simple, and primitive types of cells. They lack a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles. Examples: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae). 

2) Eukaryotic cells are complex and highly organized. They possess a true nucleus and well-developed cell organelles. Examples: Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists.

• Features of Prokaryotic Cells 
  Simple, small-sized, primitive. 
  • Cell Wall – Made up of proteins and carbohydrates. 
  • Organelles – Mitochondria, ER, Golgi body, lysosomes, nucleolus, and centrioles absent. 
  • Ribosomes – Small, of 70S type. 
  • DNA – Single, circular strand (plasmids may also be present). 
  • Flagella – Simple, single filament. 
  • Respiration – Occurs through the plasma membrane. 
  • Reproduction – Only asexual (binary fission), no sexual reproduction. 
  • Photosynthesis – Takes place in thylakoids (in cyanobacteria). 
  • Cell Division – By amitosis (simple division). 
• Features of Eukaryotic Cells 
  Larger, complex, advanced. 
  • Cell Wall – Present in plants (made of cellulose), absent in animals. 
  • Organelles – All major membrane-bound organelles present (Mitochondria, ER, Golgi body, lysosomes, nucleolus, centrioles). 
  • Ribosomes – Larger, 80S type. 
  • DNA – Well-organized, double-stranded, enclosed within a nuclear membrane. 
  • Flagella – Complex structure, with 11 filaments (9+2 arrangement). 
  • Respiration – Takes place in mitochondria. 
  • Reproduction – Both sexual and asexual types present. 
  • Photosynthesis – Occurs in chloroplasts (plants only). 
  • Cell Division – By mitosis (equational) or meiosis (reductional). 

  In conclusion, prokaryotic cells are small in size, structurally simple, and lack a nuclear membrane, which is why they are found only in primitive organisms such as bacteria and cyanobacteria. In contrast, eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex, and contain a true nucleus along with all major organelles, making them the fundamental units of higher organisms such as plants, animals, and fungi.

Deepfake refers to synthetic media created through artificial intelligence (AI) techniques where a person’s likeness, voice, or identity is digitally manipulated and replaced with that of another. The term comes from the use of deep learning and generative adversarial networks (GANs) to generate highly realistic but fake images, videos, or audio. 

• Applications of Deepfake 
  Deepfake technology has positive uses in multiple fields: 
  • Entertainment and Film: It enables realistic dubbing and lip-syncing for movies, making them accessible across languages. 
  • Education: Teachers can use it to recreate historical figures, such as Abraham Lincoln delivering the Gettysburg Address, for immersive learning. 
  • Art and Creativity: Artists employ deepfakes to experiment with styles or resurrect iconic personalities, like the Salvador Dalí museum project. 
  • Advocacy and Awareness: Celebrities’ deepfakes have been used to spread messages in multiple languages, for example, David Beckham campaigning for malaria eradication. 
  • Public Safety: Deepfakes are used in training simulations, such as preparing teachers for school shooting emergencies. 
• Risks and Challenges 
  Despite its potential, deepfake technology presents serious ethical, social, and security  concerns: 
  • Misinformation and Fake News: Deepfakes of politicians or celebrities can influence elections and public opinion. 
  • Harassment and Exploitation: They are misused for revenge porn, blackmail, or reputational damage, disproportionately harming women. 
  • Fraud and Scams: Fraudsters use deepfake audio or video to impersonate CEOs or officials, leading to financial losses. 
  • False Evidence: Manipulated content can mislead legal investigations and threaten national security. 
• Legal Measures in India 
  The government has introduced IT Act 2000 and IT Rules 2021 to regulate deepfakes: 
  • Platforms must remove impersonated or fake content within 24 hours of complaint. 
  • Under Section 66D, cheating by impersonation through computer resources is punishable with up to 3 years’ imprisonment and ₹1 lakh fine. 

In summary, while deepfake technology can foster creativity, education, and innovation, it poses grave risks to privacy, security, and democracy. Strict regulations and public awareness are essential to balance its benefits and dangers. 

Ozone is a special form of oxygen, also known as triatomic oxygen (O₃). It exists in very small amounts in the atmosphere, mainly concentrated in the stratosphere at higher altitudes. 

• Characteristics of Ozone 
  • Found between 10 km and 50 km altitude in the form of the Ozone Layer. 
  • Absorbs a significant portion of harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun. 
  • Acts as a protective shield for life on Earth. 
• Consequences of Ozone Depletion 
  If the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere decreases, more ultraviolet radiation reaches  the Earth’s surface. This leads to severe effects, such as: 
  • Increased risk of skin cancer and eye disorders (e.g., cataracts). 
  • Negative impact on plant growth and crop productivity. 
  • Damage to marine ecosystems, especially planktons (the base of aquatic food chains). 
  • Disturbance of climate balance and ecological stability. 
• Protection of the Ozone Layer 
  • Reduce or eliminate the use of harmful chemicals like Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and methyl bromide. 
  • Promote eco-friendly technologies and green products. 
  • Global agreements such as the Montreal Protocol (1987) have been implemented to control ozone-depleting substances. 

  Thus, the Ozone Layer acts as Earth’s protective shield, safeguarding all forms of life, and its conservation is a shared responsibility of humankind.

A cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of life. The body of every living organism is made up of one or more cells. The study of cells is known as Cytology. 

• Discovery of Cell 
  • The term "Cell" was first introduced by Robert Hooke in 1665. 
  • While observing thin slices of cork under a microscope, Hooke noticed small compartments resembling honeycomb structures, which he called cells. 
  • This observation laid the foundation of Cytology (Cell Biology). 
• Special Examples of Cells 
  1. Smallest Cell → Mycoplasma gallisepticum (a bacterium). 
  2. Largest Cell → Ostrich egg. 
  3. Longest Cell → Nerve cell (Neuron). 
• Cell Theory 
  • Cell Theory was formulated by Matthias Schleiden (1838) and Theodor Schwann (1839).  It revolutionized biological sciences. 
• Main Postulates: 
  • (i) Every living organism originates from a cell. 
  • (ii) The body of every organism is made up of one or more cells. 
  • (iii) Each cell is an independent unit, yet all cells work together to form an organism. 
  • (iv) The nucleus plays a central role in cell formation and functioning. 
• Types of Cells 
  1. Prokaryotic Cell 
  • They lack a well-defined nucleus; only a naked DNA thread functions as a chromosome. 
  • Histone proteins are absent, so chromatin is not formed. 
  • No nuclear membrane is present. 
  • Contain only simple cell organelles. 
  • Examples: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). 
• 2. Eukaryotic Cell 
  • Possess a well-defined nucleus surrounded by a double-layered nuclear membrane. 
  • DNA combines with histone proteins to form chromatin. 
  • Nucleolus is present inside the nucleus. 
  • Contain well-developed cell organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, etc. 
  • Examples: Plant and animal cells. 

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations, responsible for international cooperation in the fields of weather, climate, water resources, and related geophysical sciences. It has 192 member states and territories, including India. 

• Origin and Historical Development 
  • The roots of WMO lie in the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), which was established in 1873 following the Vienna International Meteorological Congress. 
  • To modernize and strengthen this institution, the WMO Convention was ratified on 23 March 1950, officially creating the WMO. 
  • In 1951, WMO became a formal specialized agency of the United Nations. 
• Structure and Headquarters 
  • Headquarters – Geneva, Switzerland 
  • Foundation Day – 23 March (celebrated annually as World Meteorological Day) 
• Core Functions and Roles 
  1. Weather and Climate Services – Facilitates global data exchange, forecasting, and climate monitoring. 
  2. Disaster Risk Reduction – Assists member states in early warning systems for cyclones, floods, droughts, and extreme weather events. 
  3. Water Resource Management – Promotes sustainable use of water resources, operational hydrology, and scientific research. 
  4. Climate Change Response – Monitors greenhouse gases, sea-level rise, and temperature variations, and contributes to international climate policies. 
  5. Scientific Collaboration – Strengthens cooperation among member nations through data sharing, research, training, and technical assistance. 
• Significance 
  • WMO is one of the most vital global institutions for climate change, disaster preparedness, and sustainable development. 
  • It provides technical expertise, scientific data, and policy guidance to its members. 
  • In the context of global warming and increasing extreme weather events, WMO’s role has become more crucial than ever.
    WMO serves as the global hub for weather and climate information, disaster risk reduction, and sustainable development, ensuring international collaboration for the safety and progress of humanity. 

Union Cabinet has approved the implementation of the MERITE scheme (Multidisciplinary Education and Research Improvement in Technical Education) to enhance quality standards across 275 institutions in alignment with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. 

• Key Facts: 
  • Full Form: Multidisciplinary Education and Research Improvement in Technical Education 
  • Type: Central Sector Scheme 
  • Implementation Period: 2025–26 to 2029–30 
  • Total Budget: ₹4,200 crore 
  • Includes ₹2,100 crore financial assistance from the World Bank. 
• Target Institutions: 
  • National Institutes of Technology (NITs) 
  • State Engineering Colleges 
  • Affiliated Technical Universities 
  • Polytechnic Institutions 
• Beneficiaries: 
  • Approximately 7.5 lakh students across all States and Union Territories. 
• Implementation Partners: 
  • Leading Institutions: IITs, IIMs 
  • Regulatory Bodies: AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education), NBA (National Board of Accreditation) 
• Major Focus Areas: 
  • Digital transformation of education. 
  • Development of multidisciplinary academic programs. 
  • Enhancement of student learning capacity and employability. 
  • Strengthening of research and innovation. 
  • Improvement in quality assurance and expansion of accreditation coverage. 
  • Curriculum alignment with labour market demands. 
  • Promotion of future academic leadership, with special emphasis on women leaders. 
• Significance: 
  MERITE scheme aims to create a future-ready technical education ecosystem in India by integrating digital learning, multidisciplinary approaches, and global best practices, thereby improving the quality of graduates and aligning education with evolving industry needs. 

In the history of the Indian freedom struggle, the Kakori Train Conspiracy holds a special place. It was not merely a train robbery but a bold and organized act of defiance against the British Empire. This daring action by the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) brought the revolutionary movement into the national spotlight and added new intensity to India’s independence struggle. 

• Incident 
  • In August 1925, the No. 8 Down Train was running between Shahjahanpur and Lucknow. 
  • Near Kakori station, revolutionary Rajendra Nath Lahiri pulled the emergency chain to halt the train and overpowered the guard. 
  • The train was carrying a treasure chest filled with government funds, which were to be deposited in the Lucknow treasury. 
  • The revolutionaries believed this money rightfully belonged to Indians since it was collected through heavy taxes, and thus should be used for the cause of independence. 
  • Their goal was to finance HRA’s activities and to draw the public’s attention to the revolutionary movement. 
• Objectives of the Conspiracy 
  • To challenge the economic control of the British. 
  • To generate funds for the activities of the HRA. 
  • To create awareness among the masses about the revolutionary movement. 
  • To send a strong message that Indians were ready to openly challenge colonial authority.
• Aftermath and Repression 
  • Following the incident, the British government launched a massive crackdown. 
  • Around 40 revolutionaries were arrested in connection with the case. 
  • Four great revolutionaries were sentenced to death: 
    • Rajendra Nath Lahiri (17 December 1927) 
    • Ram Prasad Bismil (19 December 1927) 
    • Ashfaqulla Khan (19 December 1927) 
    • Thakur Roshan Singh (19 December 1927) 
  • Many others were given life imprisonment and long jail terms. 
  • Chandrashekhar Azad was the only key leader who escaped arrest and later went on to lead the revolutionary movement.
• Significance 
  • The Kakori incident showcased courage, planning, and sacrifice of the revolutionaries. 
  • It elevated the revolutionary movement in India’s freedom struggle and inspired countless youth. 
  • The conspiracy also highlighted that India’s independence would demand sacrifice and fearless struggle in addition to non-violent efforts. 
• Kakori Train Conspiracy was not just a robbery; it was a symbol of defiance and sacrifice. The martyrdom of Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Nath Lahiri, and Thakur Roshan Singh immortalized the revolutionary spirit in India’s freedom struggle. Their courage continues to inspire generations with the message that true freedom comes at the cost of sacrifice and relentless determination. 

Sports governance in India has long faced challenges of transparency, accountability, and fairness. Against this backdrop, the National Sports Governance Bill, 2025 has been introduced. This bill seeks to reform the structure, powers, and accountability of sports bodies, while protecting the interests of athletes and positioning India as a global sports powerhouse. 

• Key Provisions 
  1. Establishment of the National Sports Board (NSB)
     • The Central Government will have the authority to establish the NSB. 
     • It will oversee the creation of the National Olympic Committee, National Paralympic Committee, and National Sports Federations (NSFs). 
     • Powers of NSB include: 
       • Granting, suspending, or revoking recognition of sports bodies (including BCCI). 
       • Conducting inspections and audits of sports bodies. 
       • Framing a Code of Ethics and Safe Sports Policy. 
       • Regulating elections through the National Sports Election Panel. 
       • Ensuring compliance with international sports standards.
  2. Structure of National/Regional Sports Federations
     • All federations must follow a uniform governance model: 
     • General Assembly as the apex decision-making body. 
     • 15-member Executive Committee, including: 
       • At least 2 eminent athletes. 
       • At least 4 women members. 
     • Mandatory committees: 
       • Ethics Committee 
       • Dispute Resolution Committee 
       • Athletes Committee 
  3. National Sports Tribunal
     • A 3-member tribunal will be established. 
     • Chairperson: Sitting/retired Supreme Court Judge or former Chief Justice of a High Court. 
     • Powers: Equivalent to a Civil Court for speedy resolution of disputes. 
     • Excluded matters: 
       • Doping cases 
       • Internal disputes within bodies 
       • International event matters (directly appealable to the Supreme Court).
  4. Financial & Administrative Transparency
     • Recognized sports bodies will fall under the Right to Information Act, 2005, only if they receive government grants or financial aid. 
     • All bodies must maintain accounts audited by the CAG. 
     • Prior approval is required for the use of “India” or the National Emblem.
  5. Special Powers of the Central Government
     • Authority to frame rules and relax eligibility conditions. 
     • Power to restrict national teams from participating in foreign events for reasons of security, public order, or national safety. 
  6. Constitutional Context 
     • Sports is a State subject under Entry 33, List-II, Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution. 
     • The bill is designed to ensure coordination between the Centre and States in the governance of sports. 

National Sports Governance Bill, 2025 ensures transparency, accountability, athlete welfare, and professionalism in Indian sports institutions. By strengthening governance and aligning with international best practices, the bill represents a historic step toward transforming India into a global sports superpower. 

Government of India launched the Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS) in 1993 to empower Members of Parliament (MPs) to recommend developmental works in their constituencies. The scheme focuses on the creation of durable community assets tailored to local needs. Recently, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) issued the Revised Guidelines 2023 to ensure its effective implementation. 

• Key Features of the Scheme
• Convergence with Other Schemes 
  • Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) 
  • MGNREGS – for asset creation 
  • Khelo India – for sports infrastructure
• Eligible Works 
  • Construction of immovable assets on government land. 
  • Movable assets for government-owned/controlled or grant-in-aid institutions. 
  • Construction on land owned by a registered social welfare society (with ≥3 years of existence; MP/family involvement prohibited). 
  • Bar Association buildings in court complexes (no recurring expenditure).
• Significance 
  • Decentralized Development – MPs can directly address local needs. 
  • Community Participation – Builds sustainable assets at the grassroots level. 
  • Disaster Relief & National Unity – Enables swift and targeted assistance in crises. 
  • MPLADS stands as a powerful tool for localized development, enabling MPs to initiate projects aligned with the priorities of their constituents. With the Revised Guidelines 2023, the scheme has become more transparent, flexible, and result-oriented, ensuring its benefits reach every part of the country efficiently. 
•  

• Establishment & Purpose: 
  • Founded in 1957. 
  • Primary objectives: 
    • Promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy. 
    • Prevent the misuse of nuclear materials for weapons or military purposes. 
  • Originated under the "Atoms for Peace" programme (proposed by US President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953). 
• Foundational Basis: 
  • Operates under its founding treaty — IAEA Statute. 
  • Independent organisation with a special agreement with the United Nations. 
  • Reports to both the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council. 
• Headquarters & Structure: 
  • Headquarters — Vienna, Austria (Vienna International Centre). 
  • Main bodies: 
    • General Conference – Annual meeting of all member states. 
    • Board of Governors – Policy-making and oversight of safeguards. 
    • Secretariat – Led by the Director General for implementation. 
• Membership: 
  • 178 Member States (as of 2025). 
  • India – Founding member and a leading participant in technical cooperation programmes. 
• Major Functions: 
  • Safeguards: Ensure nuclear material is used only for peaceful purposes. 
  • Nuclear Safety: Set standards for nuclear power plants, laboratories, and radioactive waste management. 
  • Technical Cooperation: Provide training, research support, equipment, and scientific assistance. 
  • Emergency Response: Coordinate international assistance during nuclear accidents or radioactive leaks. 
• India and the IAEA: 
  • India is a founding member, but after the 1974 Pokhran nuclear test, it stayed outside some special safeguard agreements. 
  • In 2008, as part of the India–US Civil Nuclear Agreement, India signed a special safeguards agreement with the IAEA. 
  • Actively promotes peaceful uses of nuclear energy in medicine, agriculture, and industry through IAEA projects. 
• Achievements & Recognition: 
  • In 2005, the IAEA and Director General Mohamed ElBaradei were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 
  • Supports implementation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). 
• Challenges: 
  • Non-cooperation from certain states (e.g., North Korea, Iran). 
  • Difficulty controlling dual-use nuclear technology. 
  • Rising threats of nuclear terrorism and illicit trafficking. 
• Motto: "Atoms for Peace and Development" – promoting safe, sustainable, and development-oriented nuclear energy. 

India has five Zonal Councils. 

• Constitution & Leadership: These councils are constituted by the President of India. 
• Union Home Minister or a Union Minister nominated by the President acts as the Chairperson. 
• Chief Ministers of the member states act as Vice-Chairpersons on a rotation basis (changed annually). 

List of Zonal Councils and Member States/UTs 

• Key Points for Exams 
  • Total: 5 Zonal Councils. 
  • Purpose: Promote interstate cooperation, coordination, and dispute resolution. 
  • Chairperson: Union Home Minister or nominated Union Minister. 
  • Vice-Chairperson: Chief Ministers of member states (rotational). 

India observes 8 August every year as Quit India Movement Day or August Kranti Day, commemorating the historic moment when Indians sent a clear message to the colonial rulers—“Quit India Now!” 

• Beginning and Objective 
  During World War II, Britain dragged India into the war without consulting Indian leaders, sparking nationwide anger. After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi, at the All India Congress Committee session in Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan (now August Kranti Maidan) on 8 August 1942, made the historic call—“Do or Die”. The primary goal was the immediate and complete end of British rule. 
• Inspiring Slogans and Symbols 
  The slogan “Quit India” was coined by socialist leader Yusuf Meherally, who had earlier coined “Simon Go Back.” Aruna Asaf Ali unfurled the national flag at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, symbolising open defiance of British authority. 
• Leadership and Public Participation 
  This was not just a leaders’ movement—it was a people’s uprising. Young leaders like Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan emerged during this period. Women played a crucial role—Matangini Hazra was martyred carrying the tricolour, and Sucheta Kriplani actively participated, later becoming the first woman Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. 
• Key Features 
  Unlike earlier movements, this was a more intense mass uprising. While Gandhi emphasised non-violence, some places saw defensive violence, sabotage, and guerrilla attacks. After the arrest of Congress leaders, spontaneous strikes, protests, and administrative disruptions erupted across the country. 
• Major Causes 
  • Forced involvement of India in World War II without consent 
  • Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942)—Gandhi dismissed it as a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank” 
  • War-time economic exploitation and the devastating Bengal Famine of 1943 
  • Japanese occupation of Burma and the threat of invasion 
  • Intensification of the freedom struggle by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army (INA) 
• Impact and Outcomes 
  • Despite severe British repression, parallel governments emerged in Ballia (U.P.), Tamluk (Bengal), and Satara (Maharashtra) 
  • Strengthened the spirit of national unity in the independence struggle 
  • Exposed communal divisions as the Muslim League largely stayed away 
  • Created the political and psychological groundwork for India’s independence in 1947 
    Quit India Movement was a decisive turning point in the freedom struggle—a bold call that united millions under the spirit of “Freedom or Sacrifice”. It convinced the British Empire that its hold on India was no longer permanent and that independence was only a matter of time. 

• Gautamiputra Satkarni was the greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. His father's name was Shivasvati. 
• Information about his conquests is derived from the Nasik inscription of his mother, Gautami Balashri, where he is referred to as an Ekabrahmana (a unique Brahmin). According to this inscription, his horses drank the waters of three oceans, symbolizing the vastness of his empire. 
• In the Nasik Prashasti, he is praised as being equal in strength to Rama, Krishna (Keshava), Arjuna, and Bhima, and as radiant as Nahusha, Janamejaya, Sagara, Yayati, Rama, and Ambarisha. 
• He adopted several titles, including ‘Venkataka Swami’, ‘Rajaraja’, and ‘Vindhya Naresh’, and is credited with founding a city named Venkataka. 
• He made significant religious donations, including the village of Ajakalkiya to the Buddhist Sangha, and Karjak to the monks of Karle. 
• His empire likely extended from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south. 
• Gautamiputra Satkarni defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana, a major military achievement. Evidence of this is supported by the discovery of 13,250 coins at Jogalthambi (Nashik). 
• He re-struck the coins of Nahapana, marking them with a Chaitya symbol and the legend ‘Rano Gotamiputasa’. These coins also carried traces of inscriptions in Brahmi, Kharosthi, and Greek scripts. 
• The Nasik cave inscription of his successor Pulumavi also records Gautamiputra's military successes, stating that he was the destroyer of the Shakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas, and that he crushed the Kshaharata dynasty, restoring the prestige of the Satavahana lineage. 
• According to this inscription, he ruled directly from Malwa and Kathiawar in the north to the Krishna River in the south, and from Vidarbha in the east to the Konkan in the west. 
• The overall evidence confirms that Gautamiputra had effective control over the entire region south of the Vindhya Mountains.

India's ancient religious and historical scriptures are not just spiritual guides but also rich sources of cultural, social, and political history. Among them, the Vedas hold a supreme place. 

Vedas – The Oldest Sacred Scriptures 

The Vedas are considered the most ancient and revered religious texts of India, compiled by Maharishi Krishna Dwaipayana Vedvyas. The four Vedas are: 

1. Rigveda 
2. Yajurveda 
3. Samaveda 
4. Atharvaveda

Rigveda – The Oldest Pillar of Knowledge and History 

The Rigveda is a systematic collection of Vedic hymns (Richas) and is the earliest source of Aryan life and polity. 

• Structure: 
  • 10 Mandalas 
  • 1,028 Suktas (including 11 from the Valakhilya Patha) 
  • 10,462 Richas 
• Key Features: 
  • Hotri: The priest who recites Rigvedic hymns is called Hotri. 
  • Historical Significance: Provides insight into the political structure, social organization, and early history of Vedic Aryans.

Notable Highlights: 

• Gayatri Mantra: 
  Found in 3rd Mandals, composed by Rishi Vishwamitra, dedicated to Sun God Savitri. It is one of the most revered Vedic mantras. 
• Soma Deity: 
  9th Mandals extensively praises Soma, the divine nectar and deity. 
• Khil Richas: 
  Supplementary hymns found in 8th Mandals, known as Khil. 
• Varna System: 
  The Purusha Sukta in 10th Mandals lays the foundation of the fourfold Varna system: 
  • Brahmin – Originated from the mouth of Brahma 
  • Kshatriya – from the arms 
  • Vaishya – from the thighs 
  • Shudra – from the feet 
  • Dharmasutras further elaborate duties, rights, and roles of each Varna. 
• Vamana Avatar: 
  The earliest reference to Vishnu’s Vamana incarnation and his three strides is found here. 
• Glory of Deities: 
  • Around 250 hymns are dedicated to Indra 
  • Around 200 hymns to Agni 

After the Rigveda, the Shatapatha Brahmana holds the second-most importance in Vedic literature as a historical source. 

The Rigveda is not only a spiritual cornerstone but also an authentic documentation of India’s earliest civilization, governance, and belief systems. Its hymns nourish the foundation of Indian culture, making its study vital for a deep understanding of ancient Indian history and traditions. 

Anti-Defection Law, enshrined in the Tenth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, was introduced through the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985. It emerged as a response to increasing political defections post-independence, particularly the infamous “Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram” episode of 1967, which symbolized rampant party-switching and undermined the stability of elected governments. 

The primary objective of this law is to deter opportunistic political defections for personal or political gain, and to uphold the sanctity of the electoral mandate. The provisions apply equally to both Parliament and State Legislatures. 

• Grounds for Disqualification under the Tenth Schedule: 
  • Voluntarily giving up the membership of a political party. 
  • Voting or abstaining from voting contrary to the party whip without prior permission. 
  • An independent member joining a political party after election. 
  • A nominated member joining a political party after six months of nomination. 
• Exceptions (Exemptions from Disqualification): 
  • A valid merger of political parties is permissible if two-thirds of the members of a legislature party consent. 
  • The Speaker, Deputy Speaker, Chairman, or Deputy Chairman, who resigns from party membership to remain impartial, is exempt. 
• 91st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003: 
  • Abolished the provision of disqualification exemption on one-third split. 
  • A disqualified member cannot hold ministerial or remunerative political office until re-election.
    Anti-Defection Law serves as a vital constitutional mechanism to ensure legislative accountability, political discipline, and stable governance. However, concerns over the discretionary powers of the Speaker and the limited scope for intra-party dissent continue to invite debate. 

Renaissance was a cultural, intellectual, and artistic revival that began in Florence, Italy, during the 14th century. It marked the transition from the medieval to the modern world. 

Key Figures and Contributions of the Renaissance 

1. Dante Alighieri 
   • Known as the forerunner of the Renaissance. 
   • Wrote the famous poem "Divine Comedy" in the local Italian language (Tuscan), not Latin. 
   • Described an imaginary journey through Heaven and Hell. 
2. Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) 
   • Known as the Father of Humanism. 
   • Promoted the values of human reasoning and classical learning. 
3. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) 
   • Called the Father of Italian prose. 
   • Famous for his work "Decameron", a collection of stories. 
4. Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) 
   • Considered the first modern political thinker. 
   • Wrote "The Prince", which described how rulers should govern. 

• Great Artists of the Renaissance 
  1. Leonardo da Vinci 
     • A multi-talented genius: painter, sculptor, scientist, engineer, and poet. 
     • Famous works: "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper". 
  2. Michelangelo 
     • Renowned sculptor and painter. 
     • Created "The Last Judgement" and "The Fall of Man". 
     • Painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. 
  3. Raphael 
     • Another great Italian painter. 
     • Known for his beautiful painting of Mother Mary (Madonna). 
  4. Giotto 
     • Known as the founder of modern painting during the Renaissance. 
• Writers and Thinkers of the Renaissance Period 
  1. Francis Bacon (England) 
     • Called the greatest essayist of the Renaissance period. 
  2. Erasmus (Holland) 
     • Wrote "The Praise of Folly", criticizing the corrupt life of priests. 
  3. Thomas More (England) 
     • Wrote "Utopia", describing an ideal society. 
  4. Martin Luther (Germany) 
     • Translated the Bible into the German language. 
     • Leader of the Protestant Reformation (16th century). 
  5. William Shakespeare (England) 
     • Wrote the famous romantic tragedy "Romeo and Juliet". 
• Scientific Developments During the Renaissance 
  1. Roger Bacon (England) 
     • Known as the Father of Modern Experimental Science. 
  2. Nicolaus Copernicus (Poland) 
     • First to propose that Earth is not the center of the universe, but revolves around the Sun. 
  3. Galileo Galilei (Italy) 
     • Supported Copernicus’s heliocentric theory. 
     • Made discoveries using the telescope. 
  4. Johannes Kepler (Germany) 
     • Used mathematics to explain how planets move around the sun. 
  5. Isaac Newton (England) 
     • Discovered the law of gravity. 
     • Made great contributions to physics and mathematics. 
• Reformation Movement (Religious Reforms) 
  1. Started in the 16th Century 
     • Led by Martin Luther in Germany. 
     • Opposed the corruption in the Church and wanted reforms. 
     • Translated the Bible into German for common people to read. 
  2. Spread to England 
     • The movement also reached England and influenced major religious changes.
       Renaissance was the rebirth of knowledge, art, and science. It started in Italy but spread across Europe. Thinkers, writers, scientists, and artists changed how people saw the world. It gave birth to modern science, literature, political thought, and human values. 

 The evolution of humans is one of the most remarkable sagas in natural history. It is a slow yet powerful journey, spanning millions of years, where biological adaptations, environmental challenges, and emerging intelligence collectively shaped the modern human being—Homo sapiens. 

1. Ramapithecus – The Earliest Ancestor
   • Believed to have lived around 12–14 million years ago. 
   • Walked primarily on all fours, resembling modern apes. 
   • Considered one of the earliest links between apes and humans. 
   • Fossils found in parts of Africa and the Indian subcontinent. 
2. Australopithecus – The First Upright Walker
   • Appeared around 4 million years ago in Africa. 
   • Stood on two legs, but with a stooped posture. 
   • Marked the first major step towards bipedalism. 
   • Used rudimentary stone tools for basic survival.

• • Fossil remains discovered in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh in India suggest early migration.

1. Homo Erectus – The Toolmaker and Fire Discoverer
   • Lived roughly 1.5 to 0.5 million years ago. 
   • First to stand fully upright with a more human-like body structure. 
   • Discovered and used fire, lived in caves, and created sharper stone tools. 
   • Showed early signs of community living and hunting strategies. 
2. Neanderthals – The Intelligent Forerunners
   • Thrived around 100,000 years ago across Europe and parts of Asia. 
   • Had a brain size of 1350cc to 1750cc, often larger than modern humans. 
   • Practiced burial rituals, art, and were the first to build watercraft. 
   • Their existence hints at emotional depth and symbolic thinking. 
3. Homo Sapiens – The Modern Human
   • Emerged approximately 34,000 years ago. 
   • Showed complex thought, developed language, art, religion, and societies. 
   • Created agriculture, led to settled life, and built the foundation of civilizations. 
   • Although brain size was similar to Neanderthals, abstract thinking, innovation, and cultural expression set Homo sapiens apart. 

Key Evolutionary Traits Across Time 

From the primal forests of ancient Earth to the complex digital societies of today, the evolution of mankind is not merely a biological process—it is a cultural revolution. Each stage was a stepping stone in the making of a being capable of reason, emotion, imagination, and morality. 

• Inamgaon is a significant archaeological site located on the banks of the Ghod River in the Pune district of Maharashtra. It represents the Late Jorwe culture, dating approximately from 1600 BCE to 700 BCE. 
• Excavations at the site have uncovered evidence of an agrarian society including residential structures, granaries, burials, pottery, tools, and ornaments. These findings offer crucial insights into the rural life, social systems, and cultural development of prehistoric India. 
• Spanning around 5 hectares, the site was continuously inhabited through three major cultural phases: 
  • Malwa Phase (1600–1400 BCE) 
  • Early Jorwe Phase (1400–1000 BCE) 
  • Late Jorwe Phase (1000–700 BCE) 
• Notably, public architecture has also been discovered here. These include a fortification wall, a moat, an irrigation canal, and a large dam—all believed to have been constructed during the Early Jorwe Phase. 
• Although no direct evidence of human habitation has been found within the large central structure, it contains a pit-like granary, a circular platform-based granary, and two large fire pits, indicating its probable use for storage and communal functions. 
• Adjacent to this structure is Inamgaon’s largest residential house, featuring five rooms. In its courtyard, archaeologists found a four-legged jar containing a cross-legged male skeleton with intact feet—a distinctive burial type when compared to other burials at the site where bodies lack feet. 
• A similar four-legged jar from an earlier level was discovered without a human skeleton, containing only animal bones and sealed with a bangle lid—interpreted as a symbolic burial. 
• In another remarkable burial, two nested clay jars were found containing the skeleton of a two-year-old girl, adorned with a jasper and copper bead necklace—a rare example of ascribed or hereditary status in burial practices. 
• In the Late Jorwe Phase, dwellings were primarily circular huts. However, a rectangular four-chambered structure was discovered on the eastern edge of the settlement, containing a double burial (male and female) with intact feet. 

Pottery culture refers to a specific archaeological tradition characterized by distinct pottery styles. Based on varying pottery styles and associated tools, pottery cultures in ancient India are classified into the following major types: 

1. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture (c. 2000–1500 BCE)
   • The Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture is believed to be contemporaneous with the Copper Hoards, and there are indications of interrelation between the two. 
   • These utensils are fragile, easily break upon touch, and are typically ochre-coloured, hence the name. 
   • Important Sites: Atranjikhera, Ahichhatra, Saifai, Bisauli, Rajpur, Parsu, Lal Qila, Nasirpur. 
   • The first copper tools were discovered in 1822 at Bithoor (Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh). 
   • A significant artefact, ‘Matsyabhaala’, was unearthed at Saifai (Etawah, UP). 
   • Animal bones have been found at Saifai and Lal Qila (Bulandshahr), along with a bull motif on pottery from Lal Qila. 
   • OCP evidence has been found at Hastinapur, Shringaverpur, and Noh. 
   • Five cultural phases emerged from the excavation at Hastinapur: 
     • Ochre Coloured Pottery Culture 
     • Painted Grey Ware Culture 
     • Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture 
     • Kushan Period 
     • Medieval Period 
     • The largest copper hoard (424 items) was discovered in Gungeria (Madhya Pradesh). 
2. Black and Red Ware (BRW) Culture (c. 2000–200 BCE)
   • Characterised by the dominance of microlithic tools. 
   • BRW evidence spans various regions and overlaps with other cultural zones: 
     • Harappan sites: Rangpur, Lothal (Gujarat) 
     • Painted Grey Ware overlap: Punjab, Haryana 
     • OCP and PGW sites: Atranjikhera (UP), Noh (Rajasthan) 
     • NBPW overlaps: Ujjain, Maheshwar (MP) 
     • BRW-only sites: South India, Bihar 
3. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture (c. 1000–600 BCE)
   • First identified during 1940–44 excavations at Ahichhatra (Ramnagar, Bareilly, UP). 
   • This grey pottery tradition spread across Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan, and the Upper Ganga Valley. 
   • Key Sites: Hastinapur is a notable centre of PGW culture. 
   • Iron tools have also been found alongside PGW at Bhagwanpura (Haryana) and Atranjikhera (UP). 
4. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture (c. 800–100 BCE)
   • NBPW pottery is made using well-levigated clay and appears wheel-made, thin, and lightweight. 
   • Found at Hastinapur (Mawana tehsil, Meerut district, UP). 
   • This culture marks the Second Urban Revolution in ancient India and is linked with the development of iron technology. 
   • It represents a significant phase of urbanization and socio-economic transformation in early historic India. 

Early Life and Background

• Born: August 18, 1700, in Sinnar, Maharashtra. 

• Father: Balaji Vishwanath, the first Peshwa of the Maratha Empire under Chhatrapati Shahu. 

• Bajirao was well-trained in military tactics, administration, and diplomacy from a young age. 

Appointment as Peshwa

• Appointed Peshwa (Prime Minister) at the age of 20 by Chhatrapati Shahu in 1720. 
• Chosen for his exceptional military capabilities despite young age and lack of experience. 

Military Campaigns and Expansion 

• Known for his lightning-fast cavalry tactics and strategic warfare. 
• Never lost a single battle in his military career- won around 41 battles. 
• Extended Maratha influence beyond Maharashtra into: 
  • Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand, Delhi and the Deccan. 
• Key victories: 
  • Battle of Palkhed (1728) – Defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad; considered a masterpiece of military strategy. 
  • Assisted Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand, who rewarded him with land and his daughter Mastani’s hand in marriage. 
  • Advanced Maratha power up to the Yamuna and Ganges. 

Administrative Abilities 

• Reorganized revenue collection systems. 
• Maintained a strong intelligence network. 
• Promoted capable leaders like Malhar Rao Holkar and Ranoji Shinde. 

Bajirao and Mastani 

• His relationship with Mastani, a Muslim princess, was controversial and opposed by orthodox Brahmins and his own family. 
• Despite opposition, he gave Mastani a respected place in his life and court. 

Death and Legacy 

• Died on April 28, 1740, at Raverkhedi due to illness and exhaustion. 
• Left a strong and expanded Maratha Empire for his son Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb). 
• Remembered as one of India’s greatest cavalry generals and a key architect of Maratha ascendancy. 

• Conservation of Water Bodies: Many rivers and lakes across India have fallen victim to pollution, rendering their water unsuitable for consumption. Untreated sewage stands as the primary source of pollution in these rivers and ponds. The role of ‘National River Conservation Directorate’, operating under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, is to offer financial support to State Governments for the preservation of rivers, lakes and wetlands through centrally sponsored schemes like the ‘National River Conservation Plan’ (NRCP) and the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystem (NPCA). 
• Ganga Action Plan–GAP: The Ganga, once renowned for its self-purifying properties where viruses like Bacteriophage naturally consume bacteria, has now become polluted in nearly half of its course. Currently, untreated sewage from over 100 cities with populations exceeding 50,000 is being discharged into the Ganga, along with numerous dead bodies and cremation remains. Approximately 40% of India's population resides in the Ganga basin. In response to this crisis, the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was initiated in 1985, establishing the Central Ganga Authority (CGA) under the Central Pollution Control Board. 
• National River Conservation Plan- In 1995, the Central Ganga Authority (CGA) underwent a name change to become the ‘National River Conservation Authority’ (NRCA). As part of this transition, the Ganga Action Plan was amalgamated into the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP). 
• Namami Gange Project- In June 2014, the Central Government allocated ₹20,000 crore for the flagship program named Namami Gange. The primary objective of this program is to conserve, restore and eliminate pollution in the River Ganga. The Namami Gange program focuses on the following key pillars- 
  1. Sewerage Treatment 
  2. Riverfront Development 
  3. Afforestation 
  4. Biodiversity Development 
  5. Public Awareness 
  6. Ganga Gram Scheme 
  7. River Surface Cleaning 
  8. Industrial Effluent Monitoring 

In agriculture, green manure refers to subsidiary crops that are specifically cultivated to enhance soil fertility by increasing its nutrient content and adding organic matter. These crops are typically ploughed back into the soil in their green state before they mature. This practice helps replenish the nutrients lost due to continuous farming and improves the overall health and productivity of the soil. 

When fresh green plants (especially leguminous crops) or their parts are incorporated into the soil, the process is termed green manuring. This enhances the nitrogen content in the soil and improves its physical, chemical, and biological properties. It also helps in supplying micronutrients and contributes to sustainable agriculture by reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers. 

Benefits of Green Manure 

• Rich source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients. 
• Improves soil structure, aeration, and water retention capacity. 
• Helps regulate soil pH and reduces soil erosion. 
• Boosts the population and activity of beneficial soil microorganisms. 
• Minimizes the incidence of soil-borne diseases. 
• Supports sustainable farming practices. 

Common Green Manure Crops 

Crops such as Sunai (Sunhemp), Dhaincha, Lobia, Urad, Moong, and Guar are commonly used. These leguminous crops grow quickly, require minimal fertilizers and water, and provide abundant organic matter at low cost. Their roots harbor nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which play a vital role in enriching the soil. 

Qualities of an Ideal Green Manure Crop 

• Low cost of cultivation. 
• Requires minimal irrigation and plant protection. 
• Fast-growing, weed-suppressing, and adaptable to adverse conditions. 
• Efficiently fixes atmospheric nitrogen in a short time.

Balaji Baji Rao, popularly known as Nana Saheb, was the third Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He succeeded his father Peshwa Baji Rao I in 1740 and held office until his death in 1761. 

Early Life and Succession 

• Born in 1720 to Peshwa Baji Rao I and Kashibai. 
• Educated in administration, military affairs, and statecraft from a young age. 
• Became Peshwa at the age of 20, following the death of his father in 1740. 
• Appointed with the support of Chhatrapati Shahu due to his father’s legacy. 

Expansion of the Maratha Empire 

• Played a major role in expanding Maratha power northwards and into central India. 
• His tenure marked the peak of Maratha territorial expansion, extending from the Deccan to Delhi and beyond. 
• Successfully annexed Bundelkhand, Orissa, Bengal, and parts of Rajputana. 
• Under his leadership, Marathas collected Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from large areas of the Mughal empire. 

Administration and Governance 

• Shifted focus from warfare to administration and revenue collection. 
• Promoted civil administration and financial reforms to stabilize the growing empire. 
• Encouraged the rise of regional Maratha leaders like the Scindias, Holkars, and Gaekwads. 
• Strengthened Maratha presence in Malwa, Gujarat, and North India. 

Third Battle of Panipat (1761) 

• Sent his cousin Sadashivrao Bhau to lead the Maratha campaign against Ahmad Shah Abdali. 
• The defeat at Panipat led to a severe blow to Maratha power and prestige. 
• The loss deeply affected Nana Saheb, both emotionally and politically. 

Death and Legacy 

• Died shortly after the Battle of Panipat, in 1761, due to shock and grief. 
• Remembered as a visionary statesman and skilled administrator. 
• His reign marked the zenith of Maratha power before its decline in the north. 

• Balaji Vishwanath is regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire due to his pivotal role in consolidating Maratha power. 
• He began his career as a councillor in Pune in 1696 and later rose to the post of Sarsubedar. Notably, during this period, Aurangzeb was stationed in the Deccan, and Balaji is believed to have assisted in logistical support, which might explain why Aurangzeb did not take any punitive action against him. 
• After the coronation of Shahu as king, two power centers existed: Shahu ruled from Satara while Tarabai ruled from Kolhapur. 
• Shahu created the new post of ‘Senakarte’ (Military Organizer) and appointed Balaji Vishwanath to the position, reflecting his growing influence. 
• Balaji allied with the Sayyid Brothers to overthrow the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar, leading to a significant treaty with the following key provisions: 
• Swarajya of Shivaji Maharaj would be restored to Shahu. 
• Territories conquered by the Marathas would be acknowledged as Shahu’s dominion. 
• Marathas would receive rights to Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the Deccan, in exchange for which 15,000 Maratha horsemen would serve under the Mughals. 
• Shahu would not attack Shambhuji II of Kolhapur. 
• The Marathas would pay an annual tribute of ₹10 lakhs to the Mughal Emperor. 
• Shahu’s mother and other family members would be released. 
• Following the coup, the Mughal ruler Rafi-ud-Rajat ratified this treaty. 
• British historian Richard Temple referred to this agreement as the “Magna Carta of the Marathas”, signifying its historic importance. 
• The treaty gave the Marathas leverage to intervene in Mughal politics, a turning point in Indian history. Balaji Vishwanath marched to Delhi with 15,000 troops to assist the Sayyid Brothers in deposing Farrukhsiyar. 
• His cordial relations with Kanhoji Angre, the powerful Maratha naval commander, were instrumental in securing Maratha coastal dominance. 
• Upon Balaji Vishwanath’s death in 1720, Shahu appointed his son, Bajirao I, as the next Peshwa, continuing the legacy of Maratha expansion. 

• Carnatic music is a classical music tradition of South India, primarily devotional in nature. Most compositions are addressed to Hindu deities. 
• In the Tamil language, the word ‘Karnataka’ signifies something ancient, traditional, and pure. The earliest usage of the term is found in ‘Brihaddesi’, a composition by Matanga Muni, where a raga named ‘Karnat’ is mentioned. Later, Nanyadeva used the term in his book ‘Bharatavartika’. 
• During the Bhakti movement (13th century), thousands of devotional songs were composed in local languages like Telugu, Tamil, and Kannada, using regional ragas. The language was kept simple to ensure mass understanding. 
• From the 14th to 16th century, scholars like Vidyaranya, Ramamatya, and Vitthala helped popularize this music. Bhadrachala Ramadasu, a 17th-century saint-poet, contributed significantly with his Telugu compositions. 
• The 18th–19th centuries marked a revolutionary phase with the rise of the Trimurti (or Trimani) of Carnatic music: 
  • Tyagaraja (famous for Pancharatna Kriti, mostly in Telugu, praising Lord Rama) 
  • Muttuswami Dikshitar (dedicated many works to Lord Subramaniam) 
  • Shyama Shastri (composed in rare ragas like Manji and Chintamani, known for Navaratnamalika in praise of Goddess Meenakshi) 
• Like the Mughal emperors in the north, southern kings also patronised music. Notably, Swati Tirunal Rama Varma (1813–1846) of Travancore composed varnams, padams, and javalis in Carnatic style. 
  • Padam expresses spiritual love, and Javali includes romantic themes, similar to bhajans and ghazals in Hindustani music. 
  • Tillana, a popular rhythmic piece, is comparable to Tarana in Hindustani style. 
• Purandar Das (1484–1564) is regarded as the 'Pitamah of Carnatic music' and believed to be an incarnation of Narada. 
• Most Carnatic compositions follow a three-part structure: Pallavi, Anupallavi, and Charanam. 
• The main forms of Carnatic music include: 
  Alankaram, Lakshana Geetam, Swarajathi, Alapanam, Kalpana Swaram, Pallavi, Tillana, Padam, Javali, Bhajanam, Ragamalika, etc. 

The Ramosi Revolt was a series of tribal uprisings by the Ramosi community in the Deccan region, particularly in parts of present-day Maharashtra. These revolts were directed primarily against British colonial policies and local exploitation. The revolt represents one of the early expressions of anti-colonial tribal resistance in India. 

Background 

• Who were the Ramosis? 
  The Ramosis (also known as Berads) were traditionally watchmen and soldiers in the Maratha military system. They served as local guardians of villages and forts during the Peshwa rule. 
• Post-Peshwa Decline: 
  With the decline of Maratha power after the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1818) and the establishment of British rule, the Ramosis lost their military and social status, leading to economic hardship and discontent. 

Causes of the Revolt 

• Loss of Employment: 
  The British disbanded the local militias, including Ramosis, depriving them of their traditional role and income. 
• Land Revenue Policies: 
  Harsh land revenue systems, coupled with famine and poverty, worsened their condition. 
• Disrespect for Traditional Rights: 
  British authorities failed to acknowledge the Ramosis’ earlier status, treating them as mere criminal tribes, thus fuelling resentment. 
• Tribal Solidarity: 
  The revolt was also driven by a desire to protect their tribal identity and autonomy. 

Phases of Revolt 

First Revolt (1822–29) 

• Led by Chittar Singh, the Ramosis attacked British establishments and treasuries, particularly in Satara and Pune regions. 
• Their revolt was guerrilla in nature, making it difficult for British forces to suppress. 
• The British used military force and administrative repression to quell the uprising. 

Second Revolt (1879) 

• A renewed Ramosi uprising occurred under the leadership of Vasudev Balwant Phadke, a social reformer and revolutionary. 
• Phadke attempted to mobilize the Ramosis and other marginalized groups to overthrow British rule and restore Swarajya. 
• The revolt was suppressed, and Phadke was captured in 1883. 

Significance 

• One of the first tribal uprisings in the Deccan against the British. 
• Highlights the impact of colonial economic and administrative policies on indigenous communities. 
• The second phase connects tribal revolts with the emerging Indian nationalist movement. 
• Reflects the resistance of marginalized communities to imperial rule and socio-economic exploitation. 

• The Indian Institute of Mass Communication (IIMC) was established on 17 August 1965 with the assistance of UNESCO. 
• It is India’s premier media training institute, functioning under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 
• IIMC is an autonomous institution, registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. 

Headquarters and Regional Campuses 

• The headquarters of IIMC is located in New Delhi. 
• It has five regional centers in: 
  • Aizawl (Mizoram) 
  • Amravati (Maharashtra) 
  • Dhenkanal (Odisha) 
  • Kottayam (Kerala) 
  • Jammu & Kashmir 

Faculty and Infrastructure 

• IIMC is widely recognized for its experienced and permanent faculty and state-of-the-art infrastructure. 
• The faculty-to-student ratio is 1:8, which is considered superior to most media institutions in the country. 

Academic Programs 

• IIMC offers one-year Postgraduate Diploma courses in the following fields: 
  • Journalism in Hindi, English, and Oriya 
  • Advertising and Public Relations 
  • Radio and Television Journalism 
  • Photo Journalism 
• Training is provided across all forms of media, including: 
  • Print Media 
  • Photo Journalism 
  • Radio and TV Journalism 
  • Communication Research 
  • Advertising and Public Relations 

Specialized Training 

• Indian Information Service (IIS) officers receive professional training at IIMC. 
• It also conducts special courses in Development Journalism for participants from non-aligned and other developing countries. 

Plastic pollution refers to the accumulation of plastic materials on land or in water. It has harmful effects on both wildlife and humans. 

Types of Plastic 

1. Microplastics or Microbeads 

• These are plastic particles or fibers smaller than 5 mm. 
• They are made from polythene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and nylon. 
• Commonly found in products like face wash, body lotion, toothpaste, soap, and scrubs. 
• They are non-biodegradable and flow through drainage systems to seas and oceans, posing a threat to marine life. 

2. Macroplastics 

• These are plastic particles larger than 5 mm and up to 100 cm. 
• Also known as long plastic particles, they are equally harmful to the marine ecosystem. 

Plastic Pollution in India 

According to the Supreme Court, 
"We are sitting on a plastic bomb." 

This was based on a report by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), which states: 

• India generates 5.6 million tons of plastic waste every year. 
• Delhi alone contributes 689.5 tons daily. 

Sources of Plastic Waste in India 

• Chips & Confectionary Bags- 18.6% 
• Bottles/Caps Lids- 11.9% 
• PET Beads- 10% 
• Supermarket/Retail Bags- 7.4% 
• Straws- 7.0% 
• Garbage Bags- 6.7% 
• Packaging- 6.7% 
• Food Bags- 5.2% 
• Cling Wrap- 4.0% 
• Fruit Juice Bottles- 3.4% 
• Water/Soft Drink Bottles- 2.6% 
• Cups/Utensils- 2.2% 
• Food Containers- 1.7% 
• Milk Bottles- 1.6% 
• 6 Pack Rings- 1.4% 
• Cigarette- 1.2% 

Effects of Plastic Pollution 

Plastic pollution affects humans, animals, land, and the natural environment. 

Effect on the Environment 

• Plastic debris is widely spread by wind, ocean currents, trade routes, and urban activities. 
• This leads to widespread environmental damage and waste accumulation. 

Effect on Land 

• Caused by both physical blockage and chemical contamination. 
• Plastic waste reduces soil fertility by blocking absorption of minerals, water, and nutrients. 

Effect on Water and Air 

• Burning plastic releases toxic gases like carbon monoxide, dioxin, and hydrogen cyanide. 
• These gases negatively affect the respiratory system, nervous system, and immune function. 
• When dumped into water bodies, plastic enters the food chain and poses serious risks to human health. 

Effect on Marine Life 

• Plastic in oceans severely affects marine ecosystems. 
• Many aquatic animals such as birds, turtles, seals, and whales accidentally ingest plastic, mistaking it for food. 
• This leads to internal blockage, toxic effects, and often death.

• The quantity and quality of water present in the lithosphere significantly affect the survival of plants and soil organisms. It helps form a soil solution by dissolving nutrients available in the soil. 
• The amount of water in soil is determined by two main factors: 
  1. Infiltration rate of rainwater or glacial meltwater into the soil 
  2. Water retention capacity of the soil 

Stages Based on Soil Water Content: 

Depending on the proportion of solids, water, and air in the soil volume, three main stages are identified: 

• Saturated Stage: 
  All pore spaces in the soil are completely filled with water, leaving no room for air. At this stage, the soil cannot absorb any more water. 
• Field Capacity Stage (Most Favourable): 
  When 50% of the pore spaces are filled with water and 50% with air, the soil is said to be at field capacity. This is the ideal condition for plant growth. 
• Wilting Stage: 
  After evaporation and absorption by plant roots, soil moisture drops to a level where it can no longer support plant life. This is called the wilting point, where plants begin to wilt due to lack of water. 

Note: Both saturated and wilting stages are unfavorable for plants and soil organisms. The most suitable condition lies between the field capacity and wilting point. 

Types of Soil Water: 

• Gravitational Water: 
  After heavy rain, water that moves quickly through soil due to gravity is called gravitational water. It reaches deep underground and is not available to plants. 
• Capillary Water (Most Useful for Plants): 
  Water held in the pore spaces between soil particles due to surface tension. This water is readily absorbed by plant roots. 
• Hygroscopic Water: 
  A thin layer of water vapor tightly bound to soil particles. This water is not available to plants as roots cannot absorb it. 
• Chemically or Crystalline Combined Water: 
  Water that is chemically bonded within the mineral structure of soil particles. This water is also unavailable to plants. 

Radiative forcing refers to the change in the energy balance of the Earth’s climate system due to internal or external factors. These changes can positively or negatively affect global temperatures. Radiative forcing is also known as climate forcing. 

Climate Forcing Factors 

Climate forcing can be both natural and anthropogenic (human-induced) in origin: 

Natural Forcing 

• Variations in the solar irradiance (amount of energy emitted by the sun) 
• Gradual changes in Earth's orbit 
• Volcanic eruptions that release ash and aerosols 

Human-Induced Forcing 

• Emissions of greenhouse gases (e.g., CO₂, CH₄) 

• Aerosols released from the combustion of fossil fuels 

• Land use changes, such as deforestation 

Types of Climate Forcing 

1. Positive Forcing: 
   Leads to warming of the Earth. 
   Example: Increase in greenhouse gases and solar radiation. 
2. Negative Forcing: 
   Leads to cooling of the Earth. 
   Example: Aerosols from volcanic eruptions and industrial pollution. 

Factors Affecting Radiative Forcing 

Aerosols 

Aerosols are tiny atmospheric particles composed of dust, ash, sulphates, acids, or organic matter. 

• They generally cause negative forcing, reducing solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. 
• However, some dense or dark aerosols (e.g., black carbon) may contribute to positive forcing by absorbing sunlight. 

Natural Aerosols 

Produced by volcanic eruptions, these aerosols cool the atmosphere. 

• Large eruptions can impact global temperatures for a year or more until sulphate aerosols settle. 

Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases 

These are the main contributors to positive forcing. 

• Carbon dioxide (CO₂) from fossil fuel burning is the largest contributor, accounting for over half of the total positive radiative forcing since the pre-industrial period. 

Green Carbon and Blue Carbon are important types of carbon sinks, meaning they absorb and store atmospheric greenhouse gases, unlike Black and Brown Carbon, which contribute to pollution. 

Green Carbon 

Green Carbon refers to the carbon captured from atmospheric CO₂ through photosynthesis and stored in plants and soil. It forms the living component of the global carbon cycle. 

• This carbon is temporarily stored in crops and plants, which have a short life span, and is released back into the atmosphere after their decomposition. 
• However, forests, due to their long-lived biomass, can store green carbon for several centuries, making them significant in long-term carbon sequestration. 

Blue Carbon 

Blue Carbon is the carbon absorbed and stored by coastal and marine ecosystems, such as mangrove forests, seagrass beds, and intertidal salt marshes. 

• These ecosystems trap atmospheric CO₂ through primary producers like aquatic plants, which then deposit the carbon into sediments, creating complex and long-lasting carbon reserves. 
• According to a 2009 UNEP report, 55% of atmospheric carbon is absorbed by the oceans, and 50–71% of that is captured by marine vegetation, also known as Blue Carbon Habitats. 
• These habitats, though covering less than 0.5% of the ocean floor, play a vital role in mitigating global climate change. 
• Following UNEP’s findings, organizations like the IUCN and World Bank also released supporting reports, which led to the launch of the Blue Carbon Initiative under UNEP’s leadership. 

The Bar Council of India (BCI) is a statutory body established by the Parliament under the Advocates Act, 1961. 

The primary objective of its formation is to set standards for the legal profession and oversee the regulation of advocates across India. 

It is also responsible for prescribing standards of legal education and providing financial assistance to universities offering law degrees. 

Key Functions: 

• Formulates procedures for the disciplinary committees of both the Bar Council of India and State Bar Councils. 
• Ensures protection of the rights, privileges, and interests of advocates. 
• Promotes legal reforms to improve the justice delivery system. 
• Handles the resolution of cases referred by any State Bar Council. 
• Organizes legal seminars and discussions, often with the participation of renowned judges. 
• Works towards providing legal aid to the economically weaker sections of society. 

Introduction 

• Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya was an eminent engineer, administrator, and a visionary who played a key role in shaping modern India. 
• He made significant contributions to nation-building through his work in engineering and public administration. 

Awards and Recognition 

• Awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1955, India's highest civilian honour. 
• 15th September, his birthday, is celebrated every year in India as Engineer’s Day. 

Major Contributions in Engineering 

• Implemented a complex irrigation system in South India, enhancing agricultural productivity. 
• Developed an innovative block system using steel sluice gates to control dam water flow. 
  • This system was highly praised and is still used globally. 

Key Infrastructure Projects 

Despite limited resources and technology, he successfully executed the following landmark projects: 

• Krishnaraja Sagar Dam 
• Mysore Iron and Steel Works (now Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Limited) 
• Mysore Sandal Oil and Soap Factory 
• Mysore Paper Mills 
• State Bank of Mysore 
• Federation of Karnataka Chambers of Commerce and Industry 

Role as Diwan of Mysore (1912–1918) 

• As the Diwan (Prime Minister) of Mysore, he encouraged private investment in industry. 
• Known as the Father of Modern Mysore State for his developmental reforms and modernization efforts. 

Other Contributions 

• Contributed to the planning and construction of the road between Tirumala and Tirupati. 
• Appointed to a British committee for irrigation reform, where he introduced technological advancements. 

Literary Contributions 

• Authored the following works, which guided India's economic thought: 
  • Reconstruction of India (1920)
  • Planned Economy for India (1934) 

The Pradhan Mantri Poshan Yojana is a centrally sponsored scheme that replaces the existing Mid-Day Meal Scheme in schools. It has been launched for an initial period of five years (2021–22 to 2025–26). 

Key Coverage 

• The scheme will cover 11.8 crore students enrolled from Classes I to VIII in more than 11.2 lakh schools across the country. 
• Children in primary (Class 1–5) and upper primary (Class 6–8) currently receive 100 grams and 150 grams of foodgrains per working day respectively, providing a minimum of 700 calories. 
• It also includes pre-primary or Balvatika students in government and government-aided schools. 

Important Components 

• Balvatikas: Introduced in 2020, these are pre-schools in government schools to integrate children under six years into the formal education system. 
• Nutrition Gardens: Schools will establish nutrition gardens to supply additional micronutrients. 
• Supplementary Nutrition: Focus on aspirational districts and anemic children, providing additional dietary support. 
• No Central Funding Restrictions: Earlier limitations on funding ingredients like milk or eggs have been removed. 
• Tithi Bhojan: A new concept where students of private schools are encouraged to share meals with marginalized children once a month. 
• Community Participation: States are encouraged to organize community-led initiatives to provide special meals. 

Administrative Reforms 

• Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): States/UTs are mandated to provide honorariums to cooks and helpers through DBT for transparency. 
• Nutritionist Appointment: Every school is required to have a nutritionist responsible for monitoring BMI, weight and hemoglobin levels of students. 
• Social Audit: Mandatory for every school, social audits will ensure regular monitoring and assessment of the scheme’s implementation. 
• Involvement of Higher Education: Students from colleges and universities will be engaged in local-level monitoring of the program. 

Hockey has always been a symbol of pride and tradition in India. Adding a new chapter to this legacy, Bihar is set to host the 12th Men’s Asia Cup Hockey Championship 2025 for the very first time. This event is not only a matter of honor for the state but also for the entire nation, as the tournament will serve as a qualifier for the 2026 Hockey World Cup. 

• Key Highlights 
  • Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar unveiled the official logo, mascot, and trophy of the tournament. 
  • He also flagged off the “Trophy Pride Journey,” a symbolic torch relay that will travel across all districts of Bihar before the grand event. 
  • The tournament is expected to give a new identity to Bihar’s sports culture and tourism. 
• Tournament Details 
  • Dates: August 29, 2025 (National Sports Day & Major Dhyan Chand Jayanti) – September 7, 2025 
  • Venue: Rajgir International Stadium, Bihar 
  • Significance: First-ever hosting of this prestigious tournament by Bihar 
  • History: Rajgir will be hosting its second international sports event, after the 2024 Women’s Asian Champions Trophy. 
  • Participating Teams: India, China, Japan, Chinese Taipei, Malaysia, South Korea, Oman, and Bangladesh 
  • Importance: The tournament will act as a qualifier for the FIH Men’s Hockey World Cup 2026 (to be hosted by Belgium and the Netherlands). The winning team will directly secure a spot in the World Cup. 
• Mascot – “Chand” 
  • The official mascot “Chand” is inspired by the Royal Bengal Tiger, India’s national animal, symbolizing courage, power, and agility. 
  • It draws inspiration from legendary hockey wizard Major Dhyan Chand. 
  • Key design features include: 
    • Red Cape – representing strength 
    • Magician’s Hat – honoring Dhyan Chand’s extraordinary talent and his title as “The Magician of Hockey” 

12th Men’s Asia Cup Hockey Championship 2025 is a historic sporting milestone for Bihar. Beyond the excitement of the matches, it represents the revival of Indian hockey’s golden legacy while positioning Bihar prominently on the global sports map. The event will inspire the next generation of players and serve as a fitting tribute to Major Dhyan Chand’s enduring legacy.