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Greco-Roman Writers

  • The history of ancient India is not preserved solely in indigenous sources like inscriptions, literary texts, and archaeological remains. A significant body of knowledge comes from foreign accounts, particularly those of Greco-Roman writers who either visited India themselves or recorded the experiences of travelers, merchants, and envoys. These writings provide a window into India’s society, polity, economy, and culture, supplementing indigenous records. However, their reliability varies: some contain exaggerated myths, while others are considered more authentic. 

    Writers and Their Contributions 

    1. Ctesias (5th century BCE) – A Persian court physician, who wrote about India based on second-hand information. His accounts are filled with fabulous tales—such as people with one leg or gigantic ants that dug gold—which make his descriptions historically unreliable, though they reflect how India appeared to the Western imagination. 
    2. Herodotus (5th century BCE) – Revered as the “Father of History.” In his Histories (Historica), he discussed Indo-Persian relations. Although he relied on oral traditions and hearsay, his narratives remain important for understanding how India was perceived in the wider Persian Empire. 
    3. Alexander’s Companions (4th century BCE) – Writers such as Nearchus, Onesicritus, and Aristobulus accompanied Alexander the Great during his invasion of India. Their travelogues recorded observations about the land, people, rivers, and customs, and are regarded as more credible than earlier accounts. 
    4. Megasthenes (c. 300 BCE) – Ambassador of Seleucus Nicator at Chandragupta Maurya’s court. His famous book Indica is a landmark source. It provides detailed descriptions of the Mauryan administration, social hierarchy, economy, religion, fauna, and flora. Although parts of his work are now lost, later writers like Strabo and Arrian preserved extracts, making Indica indispensable for Indian history. 
    5. Deimachus (3rd century BCE) – Envoy of Antiochus I of Syria, who visited Bindusara’s court. His accounts, though less detailed than Megasthenes’, also relate to the Mauryan age. 
    6. Dionysius (3rd century BCE) – Envoy of Egyptian King Ptolemy Philadelphus, who visited Ashoka’s court. His writings reflect the diplomatic and cultural exchanges between India and the Hellenistic world. 
    7. Ptolemy (2nd century CE) – A celebrated geographer whose Geographia contains valuable descriptions of India’s geography, trade routes, and cities, serving as a classical reference for ancient cartography. 
    8. Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) – A Roman naturalist and author of Natural History. He compiled information about India’s flora, fauna, minerals, and commodities. His account also sheds light on Indo-Roman trade relations, especially India’s exports of spices, textiles, and precious stones. 
    9. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 80 CE) – Written by an anonymous Greek sailor, this manual offers a vivid and highly authentic description of Indian seaports like Barygaza (Bharuch) and Muziris, along with the commodities traded (spices, ivory, pearls, silk, etc.). It is a key source for understanding ancient Indian maritime trade. 

    These Greco-Roman accounts, though varied in reliability, are invaluable in reconstructing Indian history. Early descriptions (Ctesias, Herodotus) highlight mythical perceptions, while later accounts (Megasthenes, Pliny, Ptolemy, Periplus) provide concrete evidence of India’s political structures, rich natural resources, and thriving international trade networks. Together, they illuminate how India was viewed as a land of immense wealth, cultural depth, and strategic importance in the ancient world.

Disease Eradication Efforts by India

  • India has achieved remarkable success in eliminating several deadly diseases over the decades, contributing significantly to global public health. 

    • Diseases Successfully Eradicated 
      • Smallpox – Eliminated in 1980, with WHO certification. 
      • Polio – Declared polio-free in 2014. 
      • Plague – Eliminated (year not officially specified, but no major outbreak since 1994). 
      • Rinderpest (Cattle Plague) – Eliminated globally, India declared free. 
      • Yaws – Eliminated in 2016 (certification by WHO). 
      • Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus – Eliminated in 2015. 
      • Trachoma – Eliminated in 2024. 
      • Guinea Worm Disease – India received WHO certification for elimination in 2000.
    • Diseases Targeted for Elimination 
      • Malaria – Target: Zero indigenous cases by 2030. 
      • Lymphatic Filariasis (LF) – Target: Achieve <1% microfilaria rate in endemic areas and eliminate by 2030. 
      • Kala-azar (Visceral Leishmaniasis) – Target: <1 case per 10,000 population at block level. 
      • Tuberculosis (TB) – Under the National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP), target is elimination by 2025.
    • WHO Certification Requirement 
      • For an official “disease-free” status, a country must demonstrate zero indigenous transmission for three consecutive years before WHO certification.

August Revolution – 8 August 1942

  • India observes 8 August every year as Quit India Movement Day or August Kranti Day, commemorating the historic moment when Indians sent a clear message to the colonial rulers—“Quit India Now!” 

    • Beginning and Objective 
      During World War II, Britain dragged India into the war without consulting Indian leaders, sparking nationwide anger. After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi, at the All India Congress Committee session in Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan (now August Kranti Maidan) on 8 August 1942, made the historic call—“Do or Die”. The primary goal was the immediate and complete end of British rule. 
    • Inspiring Slogans and Symbols 
      The slogan “Quit India” was coined by socialist leader Yusuf Meherally, who had earlier coined “Simon Go Back.” Aruna Asaf Ali unfurled the national flag at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, symbolising open defiance of British authority. 
    • Leadership and Public Participation 
      This was not just a leaders’ movement—it was a people’s uprising. Young leaders like Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan emerged during this period. Women played a crucial role—Matangini Hazra was martyred carrying the tricolour, and Sucheta Kriplani actively participated, later becoming the first woman Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. 
    • Key Features 
      Unlike earlier movements, this was a more intense mass uprising. While Gandhi emphasised non-violence, some places saw defensive violence, sabotage, and guerrilla attacks. After the arrest of Congress leaders, spontaneous strikes, protests, and administrative disruptions erupted across the country. 
    • Major Causes 
      • Forced involvement of India in World War II without consent 
      • Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942)—Gandhi dismissed it as a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank” 
      • War-time economic exploitation and the devastating Bengal Famine of 1943 
      • Japanese occupation of Burma and the threat of invasion 
      • Intensification of the freedom struggle by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army (INA) 
    • Impact and Outcomes 
      • Despite severe British repression, parallel governments emerged in Ballia (U.P.), Tamluk (Bengal), and Satara (Maharashtra) 
      • Strengthened the spirit of national unity in the independence struggle 
      • Exposed communal divisions as the Muslim League largely stayed away 
      • Created the political and psychological groundwork for India’s independence in 1947 
      • Quit India Movement was a decisive turning point in the freedom struggle—a bold call that united millions under the spirit of “Freedom or Sacrifice”. It convinced the British Empire that its hold on India was no longer permanent and that independence was only a matter of time. 

Bhaggas of Sumsumara

  • The Bhaggas of Sumsumara were a lesser known but historically significant community of ancient India. Their region is generally identified with the area around Chunar in the Mirzapur district of present-day Uttar Pradesh. Being located near the river Ganga, this region enjoyed natural protection, fertile land, and favourable conditions for trade and settlement. Sumsumara is believed to have been the main centre of the Bhagga territory, from which the group derived its identity. 

    It is commonly believed that the Bhaggas were related to the ‘Bharga’ lineage mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana. The Bharga or Bhrigu lineage holds a respected position in Vedic tradition. If the Bhaggas were indeed connected with this lineage, it suggests that they possessed a high social and religious status. Although references are indirect, ancient literary sources help establish this genealogical association and provide insight into their historical background. 

    Politically, the Bhaggas did not constitute a fully developed Mahajanapada. Rather, they existed as a small janapada or clan-based republic. It is likely that they came under the influence of larger Mahajanapadas such as Kashi or Kosala. Nevertheless, they probably maintained a degree of autonomy in local governance and social organization. 

    The economy of the Bhagga region was primarily based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and local trade. Its proximity to the Ganga enabled river-based commerce, strengthening the economic condition of the area. Culturally, the region was influenced by Vedic and later Vedic traditions. 

    Thus, although the Bhaggas of Sumsumara did not achieve the prominence of major Mahajanapadas, they represent an important link in understanding the social, regional, and genealogical framework of ancient Indian history. 

Kalamas of Kesaputta

  • The Kalamas of Kesaputta were an important republican community of ancient India, mentioned in both Vedic and Buddhist literature. Their principal settlement was Kesaputta, which served as the centre of the Kalama territory. Vedic sources indicate that the Kalamās were closely related to the ‘Keshis’ of the Panchala Mahajanapada, suggesting strong cultural, intellectual, and social connections between the two groups. 

    One of the most distinctive features of the Kalama region was its philosophical and intellectual environment. The people of this region were known for their rational thinking and openness to inquiry. Rather than blindly accepting traditions, they emphasized reasoning, personal experience, and thoughtful examination of ideas. Because of this, the Kalamas are often regarded as a progressive and reflective community in ancient Indian history. 

    The Kalama state gained special prominence due to Acharya Alara Kalama, a renowned philosopher and spiritual teacher of the time. It is noteworthy that after renouncing worldly life, Gautama Buddha received training in Sankhya philosophy and advanced meditative practices from Acharya Alara Kalama. Under his guidance, the Buddha attained high levels of meditation and spiritual discipline, which played a significant role in his early spiritual journey. 

    Although the Buddha later pursued his own path and ultimately propounded the Middle Way, the influence of Alara Kalama remained significant in shaping his early philosophical development. Thus, the Kalama region emerged as an important centre in the evolution of Indian philosophical thought. 

    Politically, the Kalamas followed a republican system of governance, similar to other contemporary republics. Collective decision-making and community participation were central to their political structure. Hence, the Kalamas of Kesaputta occupy a distinctive place in the intellectual, philosophical, and republican traditions of ancient India.











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