Major Rivers of Bihar

Origins, Characteristics, and Significance

• Bihar, a predominantly agriculture-based state in India, relies heavily on its rivers, which play a crucial role in supporting the local economy. The state is blessed with numerous seasonal and perennial rivers, forming vital sources of surface water. The Ganga River divides Bihar into two unequal parts, leading to the classification of rivers into two categories: Northern and Southern Bihar Rivers.

  • Northern Bihar Rivers

  The northern plains of Bihar, located north of the Ganga, feature several significant rivers. Major rivers in this region include:

  • • Burhi Gandak
    • Gandak
    • Mahananda
    • Kosi
    • Ghaghra
    • Kamla-Balan
    • Bagmati-Adhwara

  These rivers predominantly originate in the Himalayas and traverse through regions in Tibet and Nepal. During the monsoon season, they experience substantial rainfall, leading to dramatic increases in water flow. The shifting courses of these rivers also result in the formation of ox-bow lakes. However, their steep slopes and high siltation can cause flooding, posing challenges for nearby communities.

  • Southern Bihar Rivers

  The southern plains of Bihar are drained by rivers such as:

  • • Kiul
    • Sone
    • Badua Chandan
    • Karmnasa

  These rivers originate from the Vindhyachal hills or the Chhotanagpur and Rajmahal hills. The southern bank of the Ganga acts as a barrier to drainage, leading to low-lying areas known as "Tal."

  Major Rivers in Bihar

  • River Ganga:

  The Ganga enters Bihar through Chausa and forms a natural border between the Saran and Bhojpur districts. Originating in the Western Himalayas, it is a perpetual water source for agriculture in Bihar.

  • • Major Tributaries: Kosi, Kali, Bagmati, and Gandak
    • Left Tributaries: Ghaghra, Damodar, Kosi, Mahakali, and Karnali
    • Right Tributaries: Chambal, Mahananda, Son, and Yamuna
    • Mahatma Gandhi Setu bridge connects Northern and Southern Bihar.
  • River Gandak:

  Originating from North Dhaulagiri in Tibet, the Gandak forms a border between Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, joining the Ganga at Sonepur near Patna.

  • • Left Tributaries: Harha and Bhabha
    • Right Tributaries: Kakra
  • River Ghaghara:

  This transboundary river originates from Tibet and enters Bihar at Gopalganj. It joins the Ganga at Chhapra and is the second-largest left tributary of the Ganga.

  • River Kosi:

  Known as the “Sorrow of Bihar” for its destructive floods, the Kosi enters India around Hanuman Nagar in Nepal and meets the Ganga in Katihar.

  • • Left Tributaries: Dhemamadhar and Farianidhar
    • Right Tributaries: Trijuga, Bagmati, Bhutahi Balan, and Kamla-Balan
  • River PunPun:

  Originating from the Chota Nagpur plateau, the PunPun joins the Ganga at Fatuha. It is a seasonal river with less water during dry months.

  Rivers in Bihar are vital for agriculture, irrigation, drinking water, and hydroelectricity. Despite being a landlocked state, Bihar's rivers provide essential resources that support its economy and sustain the livelihoods of its people.

Anglo-Maratha Wars: Clash for Control in India

Rise and Fall of Maratha Power Against British Dominance

• 18^th century was marked by a fierce contest for supremacy in India between the Marathas and the British East India Company. The Marathas controlled extensive territories and influenced regional politics, receiving tributes from areas beyond direct control. Internal conflicts and the defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 weakened the Maratha power.

  • Rise of the Marathas
    • Maratha Expansion: The Marathas aimed to become the rulers of North India and acted as kingmakers in Mughal politics.
    • Defeat at Panipat: After their significant loss in 1761, the Marathas regrouped and regained strength within a decade.
    • Bajirao I: Considered the greatest Peshwa, he formed a confederacy among prominent Maratha chiefs to consolidate power.
    • Maratha Confederacy: Prominent families included the Gaikwad of Baroda, Bhonsle of Nagpur, Holkars of Indore, Sindhias of Gwalior, and the Peshwa of Poona.
    • Weakened Control: The death of Peshwa Madhavrao I in 1772 led to a decline in Peshwa authority and increased internal strife.
  • Entry of the British

  The period between the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the Marathas and the British East India Company clash three times for political supremacy, with the British emerging victorious. British aimed to replicate their successes in Bengal, and the fragmentation among the Marathas provided them with the perfect opportunity to extend their influence.

  • First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)
    • Background: After Madhavrao's death, Narayanrao became Peshwa, but was assassinated by his uncle Raghunathrao, who seized power.
    • Treaties: Raghunathrao sought British assistance, signing the Treaty of Surat (1775) to secure military support, ceding territories in exchange.
    • Conflict: The British faced defeat at the hands of Mahadji Sindhia, leading to the Treaty of Wadgaon, which forced them to relinquish territories.
    • Treaty of Salbai (1782): Ratified in 1783, restored territories to the Marathas and established a 20-year peace, though the British maintained strategic advantages.
  • Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)
    • Background: Political instability followed Madhavrao's death, allowing the British to intervene more aggressively.
    • Conflict: After Bajirao II's violent actions against rival factions, he fled to Bassein and signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802).
    • Treaty Provisions: Bajirao accepted British military presence, ceded territories, and submitted to British arbitration, leading to increased British control.
  • Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819)
    • Background: Lord Hastings aimed to impose British authority, citing Maratha support for Pindari raids as justification for intervention.
    • Final Conflict: Bajirao II attempted to rally Maratha chiefs against the British but faced overwhelming military superiority.
    • Defeat: Key battles resulted in British victories, leading to the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy.
    • Consequences: The Peshwaship was abolished; Bajirao II became a British retainer, and Pratap Singh was appointed ruler of Satara.

  The Anglo-Maratha Wars significantly altered India's political landscape, leading to British dominance over the subcontinent and the decline of Maratha power.

Pala Empire: Rise and Legacy

Political Expansion and Cultural Contributions in Eastern India

• After the reign of Harsha and the subsequent rule of Shashank, the power of Bengal was unified and strengthened under the leadership of the Pala dynasty. The Pala Empire was founded by Gopal around 750 AD in the eastern regions of India, encompassing present-day Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Assam. The word "Pala," meaning "protector" in Sanskrit, was added to the rulers' names as a title, and thus the empire became known as the "Pala Empire."

  • Major Rulers of the Pala Dynasty
    • 1) Gopal (750-770 AD)
      • Gopal established the foundation of the Pala Empire and is considered the first Buddhist emperor of Bengal after his conversion to Buddhism.
      • He successfully unified Bengal and took control of Magadha (present-day Bihar), significantly expanding the empire’s territory.
      • Gopal’s notable contribution was the establishment of a Buddhist monastery at Odantapuri in Bihar, which became a prominent religious and educational center during his reign.
      • His reign witnessed a tripartite struggle for control over the key northern city of Kannauj between the Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas.
  • 2) Dharmapala (770-810 AD)
    • Dharmapala, the son of Gopal, was the second and one of the most influential rulers of the Pala Empire. Under his leadership, the empire’s power and prestige grew considerably.
    • He fought numerous battles against the Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, eventually defeating Indrayudha to assert control over Kannauj. Dharmapala held a grand court to celebrate this victory, symbolizing the empire’s supremacy.
    • During his reign, he assumed prestigious titles such as "Parambhattaraka," "Parameshwara," and "Maharajadhiraja," underscoring his status as a powerful and respected monarch.
  • 3) Devapala (810-850 AD)
    • Devapala, Dharmapala's son with Rannadevi, further expanded the empire by conquering regions such as Assam, Odisha, and Kamarupa.
    • He was a patron of Buddhism and built numerous monasteries and temples in Magadha.
    • Devapala launched military campaigns across northern India, the Deccan, and the southern peninsula, extending the empire’s influence and reach.
    • After Devapala's reign, the Pala Empire began to decline, with rulers like Vigrahapala I, Narayanapala, and Gopala II being less capable, leading to a weakening of the empire.
  • 4) Mahipal I (988-1038 AD)
    • The Pala Empire was revitalized under Mahipal I’s reign. He restored the empire’s dominance by recapturing the northern and eastern parts of Bengal and Bihar.
    • Mahipal I expanded the empire’s boundaries by conquering Varanasi and extending control over other territories with the help of his brothers, Sthirpal and Vasantpal.
  • 5) Nayapal (1038-1055 AD)
    • Nayapal, the successor of Mahipal I, faced a prolonged conflict with Kalchuri ruler Karna. This constant warfare resulted in the loss of many territories and the emergence of independent regions within the empire.
    • Following Nayapal’s reign, successors like Mahipal II, Rampal, and Kumarpal ruled for the next century, but internal strife, rebellion, and external invasions eventually led to the fall of the Pala Empire.
  • Politics, Administration, Art, and Architecture of the Pala Rule
    • Administration and Land Grants: The Pala rulers maintained law and order by granting land to Brahmins, priests, and Buddhist monasteries. These grants were a critical aspect of their administrative policy. Royal officials were responsible for managing the empire, especially at the village level, where Grampatis and Dasagramikas supervised the village units.
    • Art and Sculpture: Pala art, particularly in sculpture, was a hallmark of the dynasty. The era is known for its terracotta plaques and bronze sculptures, which demonstrated exceptional craftsmanship.
    • Architectural Achievements: Dharmapala, in particular, was responsible for constructing the grand Somapura Mahavihara, now known as Paharpur, which remained a major intellectual center until the 12^th century. Other significant Buddhist centers like Vikramashila Vihara, Odantapuri Vihara, and Jagaddala Vihara were established during this period.

  The Pala Empire played a important role in Indian history, not only in terms of political and military expansion but also in the development of art, culture, and architecture. Their patronage of Buddhism and the construction of monumental architectural works left an enduring legacy, particularly in Bengal and Bihar, which continued to influence the region long after the empire's decline.

Cell: Introduction

• • The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Cells have the capacity to reproduce, and all biological activities in living organisms occur within cells.
  • Organisms that consist of a single cell are known as unicellular organisms, while those made up of more than one cell are called multicellular organisms.
  • The cell was first observed by Robert Hooke in 1665. Anton van Leeuwenhoek later discovered living and free cells. The branch of biology that deals with the study of cells is called Cytology.
  • The smallest known cell is from a parasitic bacterium called Mycoplasma gallisepticum, while the largest cell is the egg of ostrich.
  • In humans, the smallest cell is the granule cell of the cerebellum. The largest cell in the human body is the ovum (egg cell), and the longest cell is the neuron (nerve cell) of the nervous system.
  • Based on the presence of a nucleus, cells are classified into two types:
    • Prokaryotic cells (cells without a well-defined nucleus)
    • Eukaryotic cells (cells with a well-defined nucleus)

British Conquest for Bengal: Battles of Plassey and Buxar (Part-1)

• Bengal in the 17^th-18^thCentury

  • In Mughal Period: Bengal was the most fertile and the richest province of the Mughal Empire and included present day Bangladesh and states of Bihar and Odisha. The authoritative powers of the province lay in the hands of the Nawab of Bengal.
  • Economic Importance: Bengal held economic importance for its famous textiles, silk and saltpetre.
    • Exports from Bengal to Europe consisted of saltpetre, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar, silk, cotton textiles, handicrafts, etc.
  • Importance for the British: Bengal became the first kingdom to be occupied by the British in India. The East India Company carried on profitable trade with this province.
    • The enormous resources of Bengal came in handy for financing the British expansion. Nearly 60% of the British imports from Asia consisted of goods from Bengal.
    • The British East India Company laid the foundation of Calcutta and established British commercial settlement in the 1690s.
    • The Company paid a sum of Rs 3,000 (£ 350) per annum to the Mughal emperor who allowed them to trade freely in Bengal.
      • In contrast, the Company’s exports from Bengal were worth more than £ 50,000 per annum.
  • Conflicts among Nawabs and the British: The special privileges enjoyed by the British Company was strongly opposed by the Nawabs of Bengal as it meant a huge loss to the provincial exchequer.
    • Consequently, the friction between the British commercial interests and the Bengal government became the chief cause for conflict between the two.
    • As a result, the British felt a need for a “puppet” as the Nawab on the throne of Bengal to willingly give them trade concessions and other privileges and establish their indirect but ultimate power in the province.