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Concept Cards
Third Generation of Computers
The third generation of computers began in 1964 and ended in 1971. By this time, significant technological development had taken place in the field of computers. Computers of this generation became more advanced, modern, and reliable than earlier generations.
The most important technological advancement of this generation was the use of Integrated Circuits (ICs). Transistors were replaced by IC chips in third-generation computers. The IC was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce. An IC is a chip that contains thousands of transistors integrated together.
These chips are made of silicon, which is why they are also known as silicon chips. Due to the use of ICs, the size of computers was significantly reduced and their processing speed increased greatly. Third-generation computers were much more reliable than first and second-generation computers.
The memory capacity of these computers increased, and maintenance became easier. They consumed less power, although they were more expensive due to advanced technology.
In this generation, keyboards and mouse replaced punch cards as input devices. Time-sharing and multi-programming operating systems were used. High-level languages such as COBOL and Pascal were introduced for programming.
Third-generation computers were sometimes referred to as micro computers. Major examples include IBM 370, PDP-11, UNIVAC 1108, Honeywell-6000, DEC Series, and ICL 2900.
First Generation of Computers
The first generation of computers is considered the initial stage of computer development. This generation started in 1940 and lasted until 1956. The computers developed during this period were very large, heavy, and inconvenient compared to modern computers.
Vacuum tubes were used in first-generation computers. These tubes were made of glass and were used in large numbers, often in thousands. Because of this, the size of these computers was extremely large, and an entire room was required to install them. The vacuum tube was invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest.
These computers consumed a huge amount of electricity and generated excessive heat during operation. Due to overheating, systems often failed, making them less reliable. Their maintenance was also very expensive and complex.
First-generation computers were mainly used for calculations, data storage, and scientific research. They operated using batch processing operating systems. Programming these computers was very difficult because only machine language was used.
Instead of modern input and output devices, punch cards, paper tapes, and magnetic tapes were used for data input and output.
The most famous computer of this generation was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), which used around 18,000 vacuum tubes. Other important examples of first-generation computers include EDVAC, UNIVAC-1, IBM-701, EDSAC, and IBM-650.
Self-Respect Movement
Self-Respect Movement was launched in 1925 in Tamil Nadu by E. V. Ramasamy (Periyar). The primary objective of this movement was to promote rationalism, social equality, and anti-caste ideology. Periyar, who was influenced by great social reformers like Jyotirao Phule and B. R. Ambedkar, sought to dismantle Brahminical dominance and establish individual dignity in society. He was also an active participant in the Vaikom Satyagraha. He later founded the political organization Dravidar Kazhagam and started the Tamil weekly, ‘Kudi Arasu’ (Republic).
Objectives and Features
Self-Respect Movement introduced several significant reforms aimed at giving society a new, progressive outlook.
- Abolition of Casteism: The movement challenged the rigid rules of the caste system and aimed to eliminate the discrimination prevalent in society.
- Self-Respect Marriages: Periyar initiated priest-less marriage ceremonies known as Self-Respect Marriages. These ceremonies were later legally recognized, helping to reduce unnecessary expenses and religious rituals associated with social functions like marriage.
- Struggle Against Social Evils: This movement raised its voice against several social evils, such as the Devadasi system, the ban on widow remarriage, and other forms of caste-based discrimination.
- Empowerment of Women: The Self-Respect Movement encouraged women's freedom and leadership. Prominent women like Annai Meenambal and Veerammal were key members. It was Meenambal who bestowed the title ‘Periyar’ (great person) upon E. V. Ramasamy, and she was addressed by B. R. Ambedkar as "My sister Meena."
This movement continues to hold a significant place in India's social history, having established the values of rational thought and self-respect.
Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment
Article 16 of the Indian Constitution is a fundamental right that guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment for all citizens. It explicitly prohibits the state from discriminating against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence, or any combination of these.
- Core Provisions
- Article 16(1): This clause ensures that every citizen has an equal chance for employment or appointment to any government office under the state.
- Article 16(2): This provision strictly prohibits the state from discriminating against a citizen in public employment based solely on religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, or residence.
- Provisions for Reservation and Special Treatment
While ensuring equality, Article 16 also contains clauses that empower the state to create special reservations. These provisions are designed to address historical inequalities and ensure adequate representation for certain communities in government services.- Article 16(4): This clause gives the state the power to make provisions for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens that, in the state's opinion, is not adequately represented in government services.
- Article 16(4A): This provision specifically allows for the reservation of posts in public employment for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
- Article 16(4B): It further allows the state to provide reservations for SCs and STs in matters of promotion to any class of posts.
- Article 16(6): This clause permits the state to reserve a maximum of 10% of appointments or posts for economically weaker sections (EWS) of citizens. This reservation is in addition to the existing reservations and is capped at the specified percentage.
- Core Provisions
DVD
DVD stands for Digital Video Disk or Digital Versatile Disk. A DVD is an optical disk storage technology that is used to store a large amount of data. It is based on more advanced technology than a CD and can store much more data safely.
DVDs are mainly used to store audio, video, movies, software, and computer files. Some DVDs are specifically designed for storing audio and video content, while others are used for storing software, games, and other digital files.
The DVD was developed in 1995 by Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba together. The main objective of developing DVD technology was to overcome the limited storage capacity of CDs and provide better-quality data storage.
The storage capacity of a DVD ranges from 4.7 GB to 17.08 GB.
- A single-sided, single-layer DVD can store up to 4.7 GB of data.
- A single-sided, double-layer DVD can store up to 8.5 GB of data.
- A double-sided, single-layer DVD has a capacity of 9.4 GB.
- A double-sided, double-layer DVD can store up to 17.08 GB of data.
Compared to CDs, DVDs can store a much larger amount of data because they use MPEG-2 compression technology. This technology allows audio and video files to be stored in less space while maintaining good quality. Due to these features, DVDs remained a popular medium for storing movies and digital content for a long time.
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