The Deoband Movement (1866) was a major religious revival movement among Indian Muslims in the 19th century. It was founded in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi in Deoband, a town in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. In the same year, they established the Darul Uloom Deoband seminary, which became the centre of this movement. 

The main aim of the movement was to inspire Muslims to live according to the true teachings of the Quran and Hadith. It opposed Sufi practices and superstitions, emphasizing spiritual and moral discipline while resisting the influence of Western culture. 

Unlike the Aligarh Movement led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, which promoted modern Western education, the Deoband Movement focused on traditional Islamic learning and moral reform. 

Politically, Deobandi scholars supported the Indian National Congress and advocated Hindu-Muslim unity, viewing resistance to British rule as both a political and religious duty. 

Thus, the Deoband Movement became not only a symbol of Islamic revival but also a centre for the spread of education, moral reform, and national consciousness among Indian Muslims. 

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the first great leader of modern India and the father of the Indian Renaissance. He fought against social evils such as caste discrimination, idolatry, rigid orthodoxy, and the practice of Sati. He was a supporter of the synthesis of Eastern and Western ideas and a strong advocate of monotheism. In 1814, he founded the Atmiya Sabha, which became a centre for religious and philosophical discussions. He also contributed to the establishment of Hindu College (1817), an English School, and the Vedanta College (1825), thereby promoting modern education in India. 

In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Samaj with the objective of propagating monotheism and purifying Hinduism. It condemned idol worship, the Sati system, and other social injustices while emphasizing humanity and rationality. He translated the Vedas and Upanishads into Bengali to spread the idea of one God. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was also a pioneer of Indian journalism. His newspapers — Sambad Kaumudi (1821) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822) — raised awareness about social reforms and criticized British rule, igniting early nationalist consciousness. 

His close associates included David Hare, Dwarkanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, and Tarachand Chakravarti. Though conservative groups like the Dharma Sabha opposed him, he continued his reformist efforts with determination. Later, Devendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen carried forward the Brahmo movement. Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s contribution laid the foundation for modernity, rationalism, education, and religious reform in Indian society, earning him the title “Maker of Modern India.”

The Mappila Rebellion took place in the year 1921 in the Malabar region of Kerala. Initially, it began as an anti-landlord and anti-government movement, but later it took on a communal character. The main participants in this uprising were Mappila Muslim peasants (Moplas) who were dissatisfied with both the landlords and the British administration. 

The primary cause of the rebellion was the exploitation of Mappila tenants by Namboodiri Brahmin landlords. The new land laws implemented by the British in the 19th century gave full ownership rights to the landlords, depriving the Mopla peasants of their traditional tenancy rights, which they had long enjoyed. This injustice gradually created deep resentment among them. 

In 1920, at Manjeri, the Malabar District Congress Committee supported the cause of tenant farmers and demanded a law to regulate landlord-tenant relations. This gave new momentum to the peasant agitation. 

In August 1921, the rebellion turned violent in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks. It is estimated that around 10,000 people were killed during the uprising. In several areas, Hindu landlords and civilians were attacked, and some were forcibly converted to Islam. 

During the suppression of the revolt, a tragic incident occurred when Mopla prisoners were being transported to the Central Jail at Podanur in a closed railway wagon. Many prisoners suffocated to death inside the locked compartment. This horrifying event became known in history as the “Wagon Tragedy.” 

To crush the rebellion, the British authorities imposed martial law and established a special force called the Malabar Special Police. The Mappila Rebellion remains a significant event in Indian history as a complex symbol of peasant discontent, religious fervour, and colonial repression.

The Deccan Riots of 1875 took place in the districts of Poona, Satara, and Ahmednagar in Maharashtra. This uprising was an important peasant revolt under British rule, directed against local moneylenders (Sahukars) and exploitative administrative policies. 

Cause of the Revolt: 
The roots of the Deccan Riots lay in the Ryotwari system, under which peasants paid land revenue directly to the government. Over time, this system became burdensome for farmers. Even during famine or crop failure, they were required to pay full revenue. To meet these demands, they became dependent on loans from village moneylenders, mainly the Vani caste. The courts and new British laws favored the moneylenders over the peasants, deepening social and economic divisions between the Kunbi peasants and the Vani Sahukars. 

Course of the Revolt: 
In 1875, the Kunbi peasants rose in open rebellion against the Vanis. They gathered at weekly markets and attacked the houses of moneylenders, destroying mortgage deeds, loan bonds, and land ownership documents, which they saw as instruments of oppression. The movement soon spread across western Maharashtra. 

British Response and Outcome: 
Initially, the British authorities suppressed the revolt with force. However, later they recognized the deep economic distress behind it. To provide relief, the government enacted the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act in 1879, which aimed to protect peasants from the excessive exploitation of moneylenders and to regulate agricultural debts. 

Conclusion: 
The Deccan Riots marked one of the earliest organized peasant uprisings in colonial India. They exposed the injustices of British economic policies and laid the foundation for future agrarian movements in the country.

The Chuar Rebellion (1767–1802) took place in the region between Chota Nagpur and the Bengal plains. It was led by Durjan Singh. The primary cause was the British seizure of tribal lands and the usurpation of their traditional rights. When the tribals realized that their freedom and livelihoods were under threat, they organized and took up arms against the British. 

The rebellion was highly combative and organized. Instead of engaging in direct combat, the tribals adopted guerrilla warfare tactics. Using their local knowledge of the forests, they launched surprise attacks on British forces and then disappeared. The conflict was not limited to physical battles; it also involved the tribals’ struggle to preserve their cultural and social identity. 

By 1798, the rebellion reached its peak. Due to the tribals’ tenacity and courage, the British faced significant difficulties in establishing control over many areas. The Chuar Rebellion clearly demonstrated the tribal people’s dissatisfaction with British policies and their desire for independence. It is considered a significant event in the early stages of the Indian independence movement, inspiring subsequent local resistance and rebellions in other regions.

The rebellion symbolizes the tribal people’s courageous fight to protect their land, freedom, and way of life.

Interest is an important aspect of human personality. It is the psychological tendency that draws a person toward specific activities, subjects, or tasks. Interests influence every area of human life, whether education, profession, social life, or personal development. 

Interests in human life do not develop innately; they are shaped by experiences, environment, education, and upbringing. When a person performs a task with joy and enthusiasm, it reflects their interest. For example, some people are interested in music, while others may prefer sports, reading, science, or painting. 

Interests not only motivate a person to act but also provide balance and satisfaction in life. They help individuals recognize their abilities and strive in the right direction. If a person’s interests align with their field of work, they achieve both success and fulfilment. 

In the field of education, interests hold special significance. Teachers have the responsibility to identify students’ interests and guide them accordingly. Thus, interests make human life purposeful, creative, and enjoyable. It can be said that interest is the force that motivates a person to progress in life and establish their identity.

• The ancient kingdom of Nepal was situated between the Gandak and Kosi rivers. 
• The earliest known rulers of Nepal belonged to the Gopalak dynasty, which consisted of eight kings. 
• They were succeeded by the Ahir dynasty, and later, power passed to the Kiratas, under whom 29 Kirata kings are recorded to have ruled Nepal. 
• Anshuvarma established the Vaishvathakur dynasty in Nepal. 
• Initially, Anshuvarma was a feudatory ruler under the Lichchhavi king Shivadeva I, but later he asserted independence and assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja. 
• He is believed to have ruled until around 643 CE. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang refers to him as a “recent king.” 
• By the end of the 9th century CE, Nepal emerged as an independent state, and around 879 CE, the Nepal Samvat era was introduced. 

The Operation Blackboard program was launched in 1987. 

This initiative was started by the Government of India in 1986, based on the recommendations of the National Policy on Education (NPE) under the leadership of Rajiv Gandhi. Its primary objective was to provide essential infrastructure in primary schools across the country, thereby improving the quality of education and ensuring equal opportunities for all children. 

Main objectives: 

• Provide at least two classrooms and necessary educational materials in every primary school. 
• Provide separate toilets for girls and boys. 
• Ensure the appointment of at least 50% female teachers. 
• Evaluate children's progress through continuous and comprehensive evaluation. 

Under this scheme, the central government supplied teaching materials such as charts, maps, science and mathematics kits, and more to primary schools. Additionally, support was provided for teacher training and the construction of school infrastructure. 

Operation Blackboard played a vital role in enhancing the quality of education by ensuring the availability of basic facilities in the Indian education system. 

Disguised Unemployment refers to a situation in an economy where workers appear to be employed but their marginal productivity (or marginal contribution to the total output) is zero or near zero. 

• In simpler terms : 
  • If some workers were removed from the task, the total volume of production would not decrease. 
  • This signifies that more people are employed on a job than are actually required. 
• Key Characteristics 
  • Productivity : The key defining feature is that the marginal contribution of the excess laborers is negligible. Removing them doesn't hurt efficiency. 
  • Appearance vs. Reality : Workers appear to be 'gainfully employed,' but they are essentially doing less work than their capacity allows. This is a subtle form of Underemployment. 
  • Common Sector : This phenomenon is most prevalent in the agricultural sector of developing economies like India. For instance, an entire family may work on a small farm plot even though the labor input of only two people is sufficient.
    Example : If a field requires five workers to achieve maximum output, but eight family members are working on it, the three additional people are considered disguisedly unemployed. Their removal would not affect the harvest size. 

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a management concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns into their business operations and interactions with their stakeholders. It moves a business beyond the goal of maximizing profit to actively fulfilling its responsibility towards society—a practice that is now legally binding in India. 

• Legal Mandate in India
  India is the first country in the world to legally mandate CSR expenditure. This concept is governed by Section 135 of the Companies Act, 2013. 
• Applicability Thresholds :
  The CSR provisions apply to companies that satisfy any one of the following three financial criteria during any financial year : 
  • Net Worth : ₹500 crore or more, OR 
  • Turnover : ₹1,000 crore or more, OR 
  • Net Profit : ₹5 crore or more. 
• Spending Obligation :
  Eligible companies are required to spend at least 2% of their average net profit made during the three immediately preceding financial years on CSR activities. Failure to spend the required amount necessitates a public explanation in the Board of Directors’ Report. 

• Administrative Structure and Permitted Activities 
  • CSR Committee : 
    The Act mandates that companies constitute a CSR Committee within their Board of Directors. The committee's primary roles are : 
    • To formulate and recommend a CSR Policy to the Board. 
    • To monitor the company's CSR activities periodically. 
  • Eligible CSR Activities (Schedule VII) : 
    The Act specifies a comprehensive list of activities under Schedule VII where CSR funds may be utilized. These areas promote holistic development : 
    • Social Development : Eradicating extreme hunger and poverty, promoting education, and fostering gender equality and women empowerment. 
    • Health : Combating diseases such as HIV/AIDS (promoting healthcare and sanitation). 
    • Environment : Ensuring environmental sustainability, ecological balance, and protection of flora and fauna. 
    • National Funds : Contributing to the Prime Minister's National Relief Fund or any other fund set up by the Central Government for socio-economic development and relief.
      This robust legal framework ensures that India's largest companies actively participate in inclusive development and contribute to a sustainable environment, going beyond their traditional focus on profit alone. 

Goods and Services Tax Appellate Tribunal (GSTAT) is a statutory body established under the Central Goods and Services Tax Act, 2017. Its purpose is to hear appeals against orders passed by lower appellate or revisional authorities, serving as a specialized and independent forum for resolving GST disputes. 

• Objectives and Mandate
  GSTAT aims to enhance order, predictability, and reliability within the GST system by providing a specialized and independent forum for taxpayers. Its primary goal is to create a single, unified appellate forum for GST disputes across India. This standardization helps minimize legal conflicts and ambiguities in the interpretation of GST laws nationwide. 
• Functioning and Structure
  GSTAT is designed with a specific structure to ensure national reach and consistent decision-making: 
  • Operational Reach: GSTAT operates through a Principal Bench in New Delhi and 31 State Benches across 45 locations nationwide, ensuring wide accessibility. 
  • Bench Composition: Each bench comprises two Judicial Members, one Central Technical Member, and one State Technical Member. This composition ensures that decisions are fair and consistent, blending judicial and technical expertise. 
  • The Three 'S' Principles: GSTAT is structured around these core principles: 
    • Structure: Blending Judicial + Technical Expertise. 
    • Scale: National reach through State Benches and Single Member Benches for simpler cases. 
    • Synergy: Integration of technology, processes, and human expertise. 
  • Digital Access: The GSTAT e-Court Portal facilitates online filing, case tracking, and virtual hearings for taxpayers and practitioners. 
• Benefits and Impact
  GSTAT provides significant benefits to the Indian tax system and business environment: 
  • Faster Justice: It protects the rights of both large and small taxpayers, preventing unnecessary delays in justice. 
  • Uniformity and Consistency: It reduces ambiguity and ensures uniformity and consistency in the interpretation of GST laws across India. 
  • Investor Confidence: It boosts investor confidence and simplifies tax compliance for MSMEs, exporters, startups, and citizens. 

India's tea market holds immense global significance, establishing the country as a major player in production, consumption, and export. 

• Production and Growing Regions
  India is the second-largest producer of tea globally, contributing significantly to the world's supply. Approximately 96% of the country's total tea output originates from just four key states: Assam (including the Assam Valley and Cachar), West Bengal (Dooars, Terai, and the renowned Darjeeling region), Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. 

• Consumption and Export Landscape
  India is simultaneously the world's largest consumer of tea, utilizing nearly 80% of its own massive production domestically. The annual per capita consumption in India stands at approximately 840 grams.
  Despite high domestic consumption, India remains the third-largest exporter of tea globally, trailing only Kenya (the top exporter, which exports almost all its produce) and China. India exports its tea to over 25 countries, with major importers including Russia, Iran, the UAE, the USA, the UK, Germany, and China.
  The vast majority of India's tea exports, about 96%, consist of Black Tea. Other types exported include regular tea, green tea, herbal tea, Masala Chai, and lemon tea. This structure highlights that while India's market is primarily driven by enormous domestic demand, it maintains a critical presence in the international market for quality tea. 

World Bank was originally established in 1944 as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). It is a specialized agency of the United Nations, with the primary mission of reducing poverty and promoting shared prosperity through sustainable solutions in developing countries worldwide. 

• Structure : The Five Pillars   
  World Bank Group is a unique partnership of five institutions that work together: 

1. IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 
   Provides long-term loans and analytical services to middle-income and creditworthy low-income countries. 
2. IDA – International Development Association 
   Offers interest-free loans (credits) and grants to the world’s poorest nations. 
3. IFC – International Finance Corporation 
   Focuses on promoting private sector development in developing countries. 
4. MIGA – Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency 
   Provides insurance against political risks to encourage investment. 
5. ICSID – International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes 
   Handles dispute resolution between investors and states. 
   (Note: India is not a member of ICSID.) 

• Membership and Voting Power   
  World Bank has 189 member countries, including India. Voting power is linked to shareholding. The United States is the largest single shareholder, holding 16.41% of the votes. 
  
  
• Key Reports   
  The Bank publishes several influential reports that track global development, such as: 
  • Human Capital Index 
  • World Development Report 
    (It also used to publish the Ease of Doing Business Report, which has now been discontinued.) 

Strait of Malacca is one of the most significant maritime passages in Southeast Asia. It connects the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) with the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean). To its west lies Indonesia’s Sumatra Island, while to its east are Peninsular (West) Malaysia and the southern tip of Thailand. The strait stretches for about 800 km in length, and at its narrowest point it is only 2.8 km wide, making it a classic global “strategic chokepoint.” 

• Strategic Importance 
  • The Strait of Malacca is the shortest maritime route between the Middle East and East Asia. 
  • It reduces both transportation costs and travel time between Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. 
  • Nearly 60 percent of global seaborne trade passes through this corridor, underlining its enormous significance for global commerce. 
  • From an energy perspective, it is the primary conduit for oil and gas supplies to major Asian consumers such as China and Japan. 
  • Any disruption or blockade of the strait could have serious consequences for global supply chains and energy security.
    For India, the Strait of Malacca holds immense strategic and economic importance. It is closely tied to India’s maritime security and trade interests in the Indian Ocean region. To enhance its strategic posture, India established the Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC) in 2001. This is India’s first and only tri-services command, designed to safeguard India’s strategic interests in Southeast Asia and ensure the rapid deployment of military assets in and around the Strait of Malacca whenever required. 

Fintech (Financial Technology) refers to the technological innovations that make financial services more efficient and accessible. In India, the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) has completely transformed the fintech landscape, establishing the country as a global leader in digital payments. UPI has made transactions so simple, fast, and secure that it has become the most preferred payment system in the nation. 

Impact and Significance of UPI 

• Simplicity and Accessibility: UPI has enabled instant, 24x7, and secure payments via smartphones. By simply scanning a QR code or entering a mobile number, anyone can easily send or receive money. 
• Financial Inclusion: UPI has brought millions of people into the formal banking system, especially those who were previously excluded from digital transactions. It has promoted digital payments among small merchants and in rural areas. 
• Hub of Innovation: UPI has given rise to numerous new fintech startups, such as PhonePe, Google Pay, and Paytm, which have created a robust digital ecosystem by integrating various services. 
• Global Influence: India's UPI model has become an inspiration for many countries worldwide. It is helping other nations develop their own fast and low-cost digital payment systems, positioning India as a pioneer in fintech innovation.
  In short, UPI is not just a payment system; it's a platform that has accelerated India's financial inclusion, economic growth, and global technological leadership. 

Meissner effect is a phenomenon observed in superconductors. When a material is cooled below its critical temperature, it enters a superconducting state. In this state, the material not only loses all electrical resistance but also completely expels any magnetic field from its interior.

Key Points

• Perfect Diamagnetism: Due to the Meissner effect, a superconductor behaves like a perfect diamagnetic material. This means it completely repels any external magnetic field applied to it.
• Expulsion of the Magnetic Field: This effect is distinct from simply having zero resistance. While a material may have zero resistance, the expulsion of the magnetic field only occurs in the superconducting state. This is why the Meissner effect is considered a defining characteristic of superconductors.
• Levitation: The most famous demonstration of the Meissner effect is magnetic levitation. When a superconductor is brought near a magnet, the superconductor pushes the magnetic field out, creating a repulsive force. This force is strong enough to cause the magnet to levitate, or float, above the superconductor.
  Meissner effect was a crucial discovery in the study of superconductors, helping scientists better understand their unique behavior.

Doctrine of Repugnancy is a principle related to Article 254 of the Indian Constitution. It addresses the situation where there is a conflict or repugnancy between a law made by the central government and a law made by a state government, particularly on a subject listed in the Concurrent List. 

Purpose and Functionality of the Doctrine 

Main purpose of this doctrine is to ensure coordination between the law-making powers of the central and state governments within the country's federal system. Its functionality can be understood in two main parts: 

1. General Rule: If a law made by a state government on a concurrent subject conflicts with a law made by the Parliament, the Parliament's law will prevail, and the state law will be void to the extent of the repugnancy. 
2. Exception: If a state law has received the assent of the President, it can remain in force in that state, even if it conflicts with a central law. However, Parliament can still enact a new law on the same subject that can override or amend the state law.
   Doctrine of Repugnancy plays a crucial role in maintaining India's federal structure. It ensures a uniform legal framework across the country, especially on subjects where both the center and the states have a role. This principle upholds the supremacy of the Constitution and the legislative powers of the central government while also granting a degree of autonomy to the states. 

Neural Network Theory is a core foundation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) inspired by how the human brain works. It involves creating a network of artificial neurons that are interconnected and process information through multiple layers. 

How a Neural Network Works 

This theory is based on a learning process that consists of a few key layers: 

1. Input Layer: This is where data or information enters the network. It's the point of contact with the outside world. 
2. Hidden Layers: Between the input and output layers are one or more hidden layers. These layers perform the analysis and processing of the input data to identify complex patterns. 
3. Output Layer: This is the final layer that presents the network's conclusion or decision. 

The network learns from the input data and gradually adjusts its connections to provide the most accurate output possible. 

Applications of Neural Networks 

This theory is fundamental to many modern technologies: 

• Pattern Recognition: Used for facial recognition, fingerprint identification, and recognizing handwritten characters. 
• Image and Speech Understanding: Powers voice assistants like Siri and Alexa, and helps applications like Google Photos understand what's in a picture. 
• Prediction and Decision-Making: Utilized to predict stock prices in financial markets or to forecast weather patterns. 
• Robotics and Automation: Enables robots to learn and make decisions based on their environment. 

Neural networks help us solve complex problems that are unfeasible with traditional programming methods. They are a significant step toward making AI more intelligent and practical. 

Hornbill Festival is the most important and vibrant cultural event in Nagaland, celebrated annually from December 1 to 10. It is also known as the "Festival of Festivals". Started in the year 2000, this festival brings together the rich heritage, culture, and traditions of the state's 17 tribes. 

What Makes This Festival Special? 

This festival is named after the Hornbill bird, a revered and cherished part of the Nagas' folklore and songs. 

• Living Cultural Display: The Hornbill Festival is more than just an event; it's a living museum of Naga culture. Here, traditional warriors in full ceremonial attire perform dances and war cries based on themes of victory, love, and tribal legends. Their distinctive attire includes hornbill feathers, boar's teeth, and colorful woven belts, which symbolize their identity and pride. 
• Tourist Hub: This is the largest annual tourism event in the state, attracting visitors from all over the world. In 2023, over 1.5 lakh people attended the festival, including a large number of international tourists.
  Hornbill Festival showcases the tribal unity and culture of Nagaland. It is a platform where the Naga people proudly present their identity and traditions to the world. The festival is a wonderful blend of tradition and modernity, offering an unforgettable experience for everyone. 

 Kasturi Cotton Bharat program, an initiative by the Ministry of Textiles, is a pioneering effort to enhance the traceability, certification, and branding of Indian cotton. It is a collaborative project involving the Government of India (Cotton Corporation of India), trade bodies, and the industry. 

Key Points of the Initiative 

• Objective: The primary goal is to ensure the quality, transparency, and identity of Indian cotton in the global market. 
• Technology: An online microsite has been developed for end-to-end traceability and transaction certification. This platform uses QR code verification and a blockchain platform to track the cotton's journey from the farm to the final product. 
• Promotion and Funding: The program is being promoted at both national and international levels. Funding is allocated at the national level rather than being state-specific. 
• Registered Units: To date, approximately 343 modernized ginning and pressing units have been registered under this initiative, including 15 units from Andhra Pradesh. About 100 bales from Andhra Pradesh have been certified under the 'Kasturi Cotton Bharat' brand. 
• Importance of Cotton: Cotton is a crucial crop in India, contributing 25% of global production. Due to its economic value, it's often referred to as "White-Gold." The crop thrives in warm, sunny weather but is sensitive to waterlogging.
  This initiative is a significant step towards establishing Indian cotton as a reliable and high-quality brand in the international market. 

Nutrition plays a vital role in the functioning and well-being of the human body. It provides the essential energy, supports growth and repair, and enhances the body’s ability to fight diseases. The need for nutrition can be met through a balanced diet, which includes a wide variety of food items. The key nutritional requirements are as follows: 

1. Carbohydrates
   • Role: Primary source of energy. 
   • Sources: Cereals, fruits, vegetables, pulses. 
2. Proteins
   • Role: Support growth, repair body tissues, and help in the production of enzymes and hormones. 
   • Sources: Pulses, beans, meat, fish, eggs, dairy products. 
3. Fats
   • Role: Major source of energy and protection of body organs. 
   • Sources: Oils, ghee, butter, nuts, seeds. 
4. Vitamins
   • Role: Organic compounds necessary for various body functions. 
   • Sources: Fruits, vegetables, dairy products, cereals. 
5. Minerals
   • Role: Essential for healthy bones, teeth, and proper functioning of cells. 
   • Sources: Dairy products, green leafy vegetables, meat, cereals. 
6. Water
   • Role: Crucial for the functioning of every cell, tissue, and organ. Keeps the body hydrated and supports biological processes. 
7. Fiber
   • Role: Supports proper digestion and prevents constipation. 
   • Sources: Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, pulses.
     A balanced diet that provides all these nutrients is essential for maintaining good health and ensuring that all biological processes function properly. Proper nutrition not only improves physical health but also strengthens mental well-being and the immune system. 

Article 14 of the Indian Constitution, 1950, guarantees the fundamental right of “Equality before Law” and “Equal Protection of Laws” to all persons. 

• The phrase “Equality before Law” is borrowed from the British Constitution. 
• The phrase “Equal Protection of Laws” is inspired by the American Constitution.
  Equality is a central principle, reflected in the Preamble of the Constitution, which aspires to justice and fairness for all. Article 14 ensures that every individual is treated without arbitrariness or discrimination, while Article 15 complements it by prohibiting discrimination on specific grounds. 

• Key Features of Article 14 
  • Guarantees equality to all persons (citizens as well as non-citizens). 
  • Establishes non-arbitrariness as a constitutional value. 
  • Extends to both substantive and procedural laws. 
  • Forms the foundation of Rule of Law in India. 
• Exceptions to Article 14
  Equality under Article 14 is not absolute. Certain exceptions exist: 

1. 1. Immunities to Diplomats and Foreign Sovereigns – under international law. 
   2. Reasonable Classification – The legislature can classify persons, objects, or transactions for specific purposes, provided it is not arbitrary. 
   3. Presumption of Constitutionality – Laws are presumed valid unless proven discriminatory. 
   4. Positive Discrimination – Reservation and affirmative action are permitted to promote substantive equality. 

• Doctrine of Reasonable Classification
  Article 14 prohibits class legislation but allows reasonable classification. For a classification to be valid (as per State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar, 1952): 

1. 1. Intelligible Differentia – The classification must be based on a clear distinction separating those grouped together from others. 
   2. Rational Nexus – The differentia must have a rational connection to the objective of the law.
      Thus, the classification cannot be arbitrary, artificial, or evasive; it must serve a legitimate legislative purpose.
      Article 14 ensures that the State treats equals equally and unequals differently, based on rational distinctions. It upholds the principle of fairness while allowing flexibility for social justice measures like affirmative action. Hence, it balances formal equality with substantive justice, making it one of the cornerstones of India’s constitutional democracy. 

In the development of human personality, heredity plays a vital role. It is the biological process through which physical, mental, and behavioral traits are transmitted from parents to their offspring via genes. In simple terms, heredity is the bridge that carries the characteristics of one generation into the next. 

According to Douglas and Holland: “All the traits of heredity in an individual – physical structure, bodily characteristics, functions, or abilities – are inherited from parents, ancestors, or the species.” 

Major Theories of Heredity 

 Although heredity has been a subject of curiosity since ancient times, scientific research in the 19th and 20th centuries provided it with a strong foundation. Biologists and psychologists proposed several theories to explain how traits are transmitted. The most important are as follows: 

1. Theory of Resemblance 
   This theory states that children resemble their parents – “Like tends to beget like.” 
   Example: Tall parents are likely to have tall children. 
   Limitation: This is not always true, as sometimes opposite traits appear—for instance, children of ordinary parents may turn out highly intelligent. 
2. Theory of Continuity of Germplasm 
   Proposed by August Friedrich Weismann (1843–1914), this theory asserts that the basic germplasm of an organism never perishes. It is transmitted from one generation to the next through eggs and sperms. Hence, ancestral traits may reappear even after several generations. 
3. Theory of Regression 
   According to this theory, children sometimes exhibit traits opposite to their parents. 
   Examples: 
   Extremely gifted parents may have less talented children. 
   Parents of low intelligence may produce offspring with comparatively higher intelligence. 
4. Biometric Theory 
   Proposed by Francis Galton, this theory is based on statistical analysis. He concluded that children inherit traits not only from their parents but also from grandparents, great-grandparents, and even earlier generations. 
   Both paternal and maternal sides contribute equally. 
5. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters 
   Traditionally, it is believed that traits acquired during one’s lifetime are not passed on to the next generation. However, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck rejected this and argued that acquired traits are inherited. 
6. Example: According to Lamarck, the giraffe originally had a short neck. To feed on leaves of tall trees, it continually stretched upward, lengthening its neck over generations. Eventually, the long neck became a hereditary trait. 
7. Law of Variation 
   This principle highlights that children are never exact replicas of their parents. Instead, they show variations in physical, intellectual, and emotional traits. 
   Even siblings, born of the same parents, may differ in complexion, intelligence, behavior, and temperament due to genetic recombination. 
   Heredity is the foundation of human life, proving that personality development depends not only on environment but also on ancestral traits. Different theories explain this complex process from varied perspectives. Thus, it can be said that human personality is the combined outcome of inherited traits and environmental influences. 

A mixture is a substance formed by combining two or more elements or compounds in any proportion, without any chemical reaction. The components of a mixture retain their original properties, and that is why mixtures can be separated into their constituents using simple physical or mechanical methods such as filtration, evaporation, distillation, or centrifugation. 

For example, air is a natural mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases in varying amounts. Mixtures are broadly classified into two main categories – Homogeneous mixtures and Heterogeneous mixtures. 

1. Homogeneous Mixture 
   A homogeneous mixture is one in which the components are combined in a definite ratio and are uniformly distributed throughout the mixture. In such mixtures, the properties remain the same in every part, and the individual components cannot be distinguished by the naked eye because they are spread evenly at the molecular level. 
   • Key Features: 
     1. Uniform composition and identical properties throughout. 
     2. The individual components cannot be physically distinguished. 
     3. They are often formed when a substance dissolves completely in another. 
     4. Examples: Sugar solution, salt solution, air, vinegar. 
2. Heterogeneous Mixture 
   A heterogeneous mixture is one in which the components are present in an indefinite ratio and are not uniformly distributed. Different parts of the mixture may have different properties and composition. In this case, the individual substances can be seen with the naked eye and can often be separated easily by simple methods. 
   • Key Features: 
     1. Non-uniform composition and variable properties. 
     2. The different components are visible separately. 
     3. Easier to separate into individual substances. 
   • Examples: Gunpowder, fog, muddy water, mixture of sand and salt, oil and water. 
     Thus, a mixture is a fundamental concept in chemistry where substances come together physically while retaining their identity. Homogeneous mixtures are uniform and consistent in nature, whereas heterogeneous mixtures show clear variation and separation of components. This distinction is not only important in understanding chemistry but also highly relevant in everyday life where mixtures are encountered in multiple forms. 

In the 20th century, the Indian National Movement reached its peak. This period witnessed the rise of several political, social, and cultural organizations that spread the freedom struggle to the masses and created a decisive environment for the fight against British rule. 

• Important Organizations and Institutions 

 These organizations gave a decisive turn to India’s freedom struggle. From the Ghadar Party to the Azad Hind Fauj and the Azad Hind Government, each contributed in its own way to India’s independence. 

India is a river-rich country where rivers and canals have always played a crucial role in trade and transportation. Along with sea routes, Inland Water Transport (IWT) is considered one of the most economical, eco-friendly, and energy-efficient modes of transport. To strengthen this sector, several rivers, canals, and estuarine regions have been declared as National Waterways (NWs). These waterways not only promote trade and tourism but also support regional development, employment, and international commerce (especially through the Indo-Bangladesh Protocol route). 

Major National Waterways of India 

India’s National Waterways provide a cost-effective and sustainable transport network while enhancing domestic trade, export-import connectivity, tourism, and regional integration. Among them, NW-1 (Ganga) is the longest and most significant, whereas NW-97 (Sundarbans) is strategically important for Indo-Bangladesh trade relations. In the coming years, the expansion and modernization of these waterways will play a vital role in strengthening India’s economy and promoting a greener transportation system

The history of ancient India is not based only on indigenous sources but is also enriched by the accounts of foreign travelers. Among them, Chinese Buddhist pilgrims are particularly important. They visited India to study Buddhism, collect scriptures, and understand Indian culture. Their travelogues provide detailed descriptions of the society, politics, religion, and education of their times, playing a vital role in clarifying and reconstructing Indian history. 

(i) Fa-Hien 

• Period: Visited during the reign of Gupta ruler Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). 
• Purpose: To collect Buddhist texts and relics. 
• Account: 
  • Described the society and culture of Madhya Pradesh in detail. 
  • Depicted the people as happy and prosperous. 

(ii) Song-Yun 

• Arrival: Came to India in 518 CE. 
• Stay: Remained for about three years. 
• Purpose: To study Buddhist scriptures and traditions. 
• Account: His writings reflect the condition of Buddhism in India during his time. 

(iii) Hsuan-Tsang / Xuanzang 

• Arrival: Began his journey in 629 CE from China and reached India. 
• Stay in India: About 15 years (630–645 CE). 
• Ruler: Visited during the reign of Harshavardhana. 
• Purpose: To study and collect Buddhist scriptures; studied at Nalanda University. 
• Account: 
  • Authored the famous travelogue “Si-Yu-Ki”, which mentions 138 countries. 
  • Gave a vivid description of the society, religion, and politics of Harsha’s time. 
  • Noted that the ruler of Sindh was a Shudra. 
  • At that time, the Chancellor of Nalanda University was Acharya Shilabhadra. 

(iv) I-Tsing / Yijing 

• Arrival: Came to India in the late 7th century CE. 
• Purpose: To study Buddhism in depth and translate Buddhist scriptures. 
• Account: 
  • Provided detailed descriptions of Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities. 
  • Highlighted the educational system and religious life of India in his time. 

The accounts of these Chinese travelers are priceless sources of Indian history. Their writings offer authentic glimpses of the social, political, and religious life of their periods. 

• Fa-Hien described the prosperity of the Gupta age. 
• Song-Yun recorded the state of Buddhism. 
• Xuanzang gave vivid details of Harsha’s reign. 
• I-Tsing depicted universities and the education system. 

Thus, their narratives are highly significant for reconstructing Indian history and for understanding India’s place in the global historical context. 

On the occasion of India’s 79th Independence Day (2025), the Prime Minister unveiled a series of transformative initiatives aimed at realizing the vision of a Developed India by 2047. These announcements mark decisive steps towards economic self-reliance, strategic security, technological advancement, and clean energy leadership on the global stage. 

• Key Initiatives 
  1. PM Viksit Bharat Rozgar Yojana
     • Objective: Generate 3.5 crore jobs within the next 2 years. 
     • Support: Newly employed youth to receive a financial assistance of ₹15,000. 
     • Impact: Direct benefit to nearly 3 crore families. 
     • Significance: A milestone in the journey from “Independent India to Prosperous India”. 
  2. Mission Sudarshan Chakra
     • Goal: Develop an indigenous Iron Dome-like Air Defence System by 2035. 
     • Purpose: Protect strategic and civilian infrastructure, prevent hostile attacks, and enhance India’s retaliatory capacity. 
  3. Semiconductor Revolution
     • India will present its first Made-in-India semiconductor chip by the end of 2025. 
     • Marks a historic step towards digital self-reliance and reducing dependence on global supply chains. 
  4. National Deep Water Exploration Mission (Samudra Manthan)
     • Large-scale exploration of offshore oil, gas, and mineral resources. 
     • Aimed at strengthening energy security and resource diversification. 
  5. GST and Reform Task Force
     • Implementation: GST reforms effective from October 2025. 
     • Focus: Revision of essential commodities, relief to MSMEs and consumers. 
     • Establishment of a dedicated Reform Task Force to cut red tape and ensure business-friendly governance. 
     • Target: Position India as a $10 trillion economy by 2047. 
  6. High-Power Demography Mission
     • Addressing demographic imbalances caused by illegal migration in border regions. 
     • Emphasis on national security, integrity, and protection of citizens’ rights. 
  7. Nuclear Energy Expansion Plan
     • Goal: Expand nuclear energy capacity tenfold by 2047. 
     • Development of 10 new nuclear reactors underway to meet future energy needs. 
  8. Clean Energy Milestone
     • India has already achieved its target of 50% electricity generation from non-fossil fuel sources, five years ahead of the 2030 deadline. 
     • A landmark achievement that establishes India’s global leadership in green energy transition.
       The announcements made on India’s 79th Independence Day are not merely policy declarations but a strategic blueprint for Viksit Bharat 2047. From employment generation and defense modernization to technology, energy security, and economic reforms, these initiatives are set to propel India towards becoming a global powerhouse in the 21st century. 

A unit is a defined standard quantity used to measure any physical quantity. 
The use of units ensures uniformity, accuracy, and consistency in measurement. 

Types of Units 

1. Fundamental Units 
   • Independent units that are not derived from any other units. 
   • Example: metre (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), etc. 
2. Derived Units 
   • Units obtained by combining two or more fundamental units. 
   • Example: velocity (m/s), force (kg·m/s²), pressure (N/m²), etc. 

SI System (International System of Units) 

• Full Form: Système International d’Unités 
• Adopted in: 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) 
• Key Features: 
  • Globally accepted 
  • Ensures uniformity in measurements 
  • Applicable in science, technology, and engineering worldwide 

Seven Fundamental SI Units 

Supplementary SI Units 

Old Units and Their SI Replacements 

 Important Notes 

• Force → newton (N) = kg·m/s² 
• Energy → joule (J) = N·m 
• Pressure → pascal (Pa) = N/m² 
• Electric Charge → coulomb (C) = A·s 
• 1 metre = 100 centimetres = 1000 millimetres 
• 1 kilogram = 1000 grams 
• Temperature conversion: K = °C + 273.15 

 Constitution of India, adopted on 26 January 1950, is one of the lengthiest and most comprehensive constitutions in the world. While it reflects India’s own socio-political context, many of its provisions were inspired by the constitutions and governance systems of other countries. The framers of the Constitution borrowed best practices from across the world and adapted them to suit India’s needs. Below is a list of the major foreign sources and the provisions India adopted from them. 

• Foreign Sources and Borrowed Features 

•  Special Note
  Among all influences, the Government of India Act, 1935 had the greatest impact. Out of the original 395 Articles of the Constitution, nearly 250 were directly borrowed or adapted from this Act, making it the single largest source of India’s constitutional provisions.
  Indian Constitution is often called a “bag of borrowings”, but it is much more than that—it is a carefully crafted document that combines global best practices with indigenous needs. This blending of ideas has helped India maintain a balance between democracy, federalism, and social justice while ensuring adaptability to changing times. 

What is a Verb? 

A verb is a word that expresses an action, an event, or a state of being. Hence, it is often called a “doing word” or a “state word”. It forms the core of a sentence – without a verb, a sentence is incomplete. 

• Action word → shows what is being done 
• State word → shows condition or existence 

Examples: 
run, jump, eat, sleep, is, are, was, have, must, can, should 

Types of Verbs 

1. Main Verb (Principal Verb) 

• Shows the primary action or state in a sentence 
• Can appear alone or with helping verbs 

Example: 
She sings beautifully. → 'sings' is the main verb.

2. Auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs) 

These verbs support the main verb to form tenses, moods, or voices. 

Types of Auxiliary Verbs: 

A. Primary Auxiliaries
Forms: be (am, is, are, was, were), do (do, does, did), have (has, have, had)
Used as both main and helping verbs 

Examples: 
They are dancing. → helping verb 
He has a laptop. → main verb

B. Modal Auxiliaries

Express possibility, necessity, ability, permission, etc. 
Always used with a main verb 

Common Modals: 
can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to 

Example: 
You should complete your homework. 

 C. Marginal Auxiliaries

 Function partly as modals, partly as main verbs 

Common Marginal Auxiliaries: 
need, dare, used to 

Examples: 
We need to talk. → main verb 
You need not worry. → helping verb 
She used to sing. → modal verb 

• Key Takeaways : 
  • A verb can be a main or a helping verb. 
  • Modals require a main verb to compl*ete meaning. 
  • Marginal auxiliaries are flexible in usage. 
  • Mastering verbs improves accuracy in tense, voice, error detection, and translation. 

Electroplating is the process of depositing a layer of a desired metal onto a surface by passing an electric current through a suitable electrolyte. In industries, metal objects are coated with another metal to enhance durability and appearance. 

• For example, chromium coating is applied to bicycle and motorcycle handles, wheel rims, tap nozzles, gas burners, and vehicle parts to make them shiny and resistant to scratches. Chromium does not corrode, but since it is expensive, only a thin layer is applied instead of using solid chromium. 
• A layer of zinc is applied to iron objects like vehicles and bridges to prevent rusting. 
• Iron cans used to store food are coated with tin, which is less reactive, to prevent contamination. 
• In the manufacture of imitation gold or silver jewellery, a layer of gold or silver is electroplated on cheaper metals to give a rich appearance. 

Process of Electroplating 

• Two copper plates (10 cm × 4 cm) are suspended in a 250 ml beaker filled with distilled water, ensuring their upper ends are connected by wires and remain above the water surface. 
• Copper sulphate (2 teaspoons) is dissolved in the water, and a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid are added to increase conductivity. 
• When electric current is passed through the solution using a battery: 
  • A layer of copper is deposited on the negative electrode. 
  • The same amount of copper dissolves from the positive electrode, maintaining the copper concentration in the solution. 
• This happens because the copper sulphate solution dissociates into copper and sulphate ions. 
• By reversing the polarity of the electrodes, electroplating can be done on either plate. 

Important Note: The solutions used for electroplating in industries are often polluting, and thus specific guidelines are issued for their safe disposal.

The Pradhan Mantri Poshan Yojana is a centrally sponsored scheme that replaces the existing Mid-Day Meal Scheme in schools. It has been launched for an initial period of five years (2021–22 to 2025–26). 

• Key Coverage 
  • The scheme will cover 11.8 crore students enrolled from Classes I to VIII in more than 11.2 lakh schools across the country. 
  • Children in primary (Class 1–5) and upper primary (Class 6–8) currently receive 100 grams and 150 grams of foodgrains per working day respectively, providing a minimum of 700 calories. 
  • It also includes pre-primary or Balvatika students in government and government-aided schools. 
• Important Components 
  • Balvatikas: Introduced in 2020, these are pre-schools in government schools to integrate children under six years into the formal education system. 
  • Nutrition Gardens: Schools will establish nutrition gardens to supply additional micronutrients. 
  • Supplementary Nutrition: Focus on aspirational districts and anemic children, providing additional dietary support. 
  • No Central Funding Restrictions: Earlier limitations on funding ingredients like milk or eggs have been removed. 
  • Tithi Bhojan: A new concept where students of private schools are encouraged to share meals with marginalized children once a month. 
  • Community Participation: States are encouraged to organize community-led initiatives to provide special meals. 
• Administrative Reforms 
  • Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): States/UTs are mandated to provide honorariums to cooks and helpers through DBT for transparency. 
  • Nutritionist Appointment: Every school is required to have a nutritionist responsible for monitoring BMI, weight and hemoglobin levels of students. 
  • Social Audit: Mandatory for every school, social audits will ensure regular monitoring and assessment of the scheme’s implementation. 
  • Involvement of Higher Education: Students from colleges and universities will be engaged in local-level monitoring of the program. 

Introduction 

• Marine biotechnology refers to the exploration of marine organisms and the development of useful products for human benefit derived from them. 
• In other words, it encompasses all biotechnological efforts that utilize marine biological resources for human welfare. 

Scientific Significance 

• Marine biodiversity and biotechnology have enabled scientists to better understand the evolution and unique adaptations of marine organisms. 
• As many marine organisms thrive in extreme conditions—such as absence of light, high pressure, and elevated temperatures—they have become valuable in the development of specialized medicines and enzymes. 

Medical Applications 

• Ongoing research in marine biotechnology has led to the development of numerous drugs. 
• For example, antiviral medications like Zovirax (Generic name: Acyclovir), developed from Caribbean marine organisms, have shown significant success. 

Applications of Marine Biotechnology 

1. Drug Development
   • Marine organisms such as seaweeds and invertebrates have contributed to the creation of novel medicines. 
   • This includes progress in cancer treatment, particularly using marine-derived compounds. 
2. Food Industry
   • Enzymes extracted from fish and other marine species are often more efficient and beneficial than conventional enzymes used in food processing. 
   • Collagen and gelatin proteins derived from fish are effective in preserving food at lower temperatures. 
3. Industrial Applications
   • Microscopic algae found in marine environments can be used to produce biopolymers, which are instrumental in oil extraction processes. 
4. Cancer Treatment
   • Dolastatin, a compound discovered in the Indian Ocean, has shown promising results in treating breast cancer and other forms of cancer. 

Assam Rifles 

• Established in 1835 as a paramilitary force under the name Cachar Levy. 
• Responsible for guarding the India-Myanmar and India-China (Northeast) borders. 
• Comprises 46 battalions, functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs. 
• Headquarters: Shillong. 
• Known as the "Sentinel of the Northeast". 

National Security Guard (NSG) 

• Formed in 1984 to combat terrorism. 
• Its commandos are famously called ‘Black Cat’ Commandos. 
• Training Centre: Manesar, Haryana. 
• Two main divisions: 
  • Special Action Group (SAG) – consists of military personnel. 
  • Special Ranger Group (SRG) – consists of state police personnel. 

Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) 

• Functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs. 
• Formed in 1963 post the India-China war. 
• Renamed Sashastra Seema Bal in 2003. 
• Duties include border protection, and controlling cross-border crimes and smuggling. 

Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) 

• Established in 1939 as the Crown Representative Police. 
• Renamed CRPF in 1949. 
• Headquarters: New Delhi. 
• The Rapid Action Force (RAF), set up in 1992 to handle riots, is a part of CRPF. 

Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) 

• Formed in October 1962 after the Sino-Indian War. 
• Headquarters: New Delhi. 
• Also serves as the nodal agency for disaster management in the Himalayan region. 
• Assists in Kailash Mansarovar Yatra with security, communication, and health support. 

Border Security Force (BSF) 

• Created in 1965 to defend against external aggression and monitor the India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh borders. 
• Headquarters: New Delhi. 

Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) 

• Formed in 1969 to provide security to industrial units and public sector enterprises. 
• Headquarters: New Delhi. 
• Operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs. 

National Cadet Corps (NCC) 

• Established in 1948 to prepare youth as India’s second line of defense. 
• Motto: ‘Unity and Discipline’. 
• Participation is voluntary in schools and colleges. 
• Functions at Army, Navy and Air Force levels. 
• Headquarters: New Delhi.

A Nuclear-Free Zone refers to a region where the development, possession, testing, and deployment of nuclear weapons are strictly prohibited through international agreements and treaties. These zones aim to promote peace, regional security, and non-proliferation of nuclear arms. 

• The concept was first formalized by the Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967), which established Latin America and the Caribbean as a nuclear-weapon-free zone. 
• The idea was reinforced in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 1968, which encouraged the creation of such zones globally to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. 
• The Treaty of Rarotonga (1985) declared the South Pacific region a nuclear-free zone, banning the stationing and testing of nuclear arms in the area. 
• The Pelindaba Treaty (1996) established the African continent as a nuclear-free zone, prohibiting all nuclear explosive activities on African soil. 
• Similarly, the Bangkok Treaty (1997) created a nuclear-weapon-free zone in Southeast Asia, covering all ASEAN member countries. 

These treaties represent a significant global effort toward nuclear disarmament and emphasize the importance of maintaining certain regions of the world free from nuclear threats, thereby contributing to global peace and environmental safety.

The total genetic diversity within a species is referred to as the gene pool. In the present era, due to the rapid loss of biodiversity, Gene Pool Centres are being established globally to preserve endangered genetic resources. 

These centres serve as repositories for important crop species and endemic animal species. They play a vital role in collecting and conserving the genes or genetic material of agricultural and tropical plant species for future use. 

The gene pool represents the entire genetic material of a population at a specific point in time. This genetic material is systematically collected and stored in Gene Pool Centres, where it can be utilized for research, breeding, and conservation purposes in the future. 

Some of the world’s key biodiversity hotspots have been recognized and incorporated into Gene Pool Centres, due to their rich and unique genetic resources. 

Major Gene Pool Centres of the World: 

• South Asian Tropical Region, Indo-China, and Island Regions, including the Malay Archipelago 
• South-West Asian Region, including the Caucasus, Middle East, and North-Western India 
• East Asia, including China and Japan 
• Mediterranean Region 
• European Region 
• Andean Region of South America 

These regions are considered global centres of biodiversity, crucial for the conservation of genetic heritage and sustainable development in agriculture and ecology. 

• The Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in 1974, and by 1978, a total of 16 crocodile breeding centers were established. 
• Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park, which is included in the World Heritage List, has the highest population of saltwater crocodiles. 
• The Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute is located in Hyderabad. 
• Andhra Pradesh has the highest number of crocodile sanctuaries in India. 
• The Crocodile Breeding and Management Project was initiated in 1975 with the support of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 
• The Bhagwatpur Crocodile Project in West Bengal, launched in the 1970s, was aimed at increasing the population of saltwater crocodiles. 

The term polymer is derived from two Greek words: ‘poly’ meaning many and ‘mer’ meaning unit or part. 
Polymers are defined as very large molecules with high molecular mass, and are also known as macromolecules. They are formed by the repeated linkage of smaller structural units, called monomers, on a large scale. 

These monomer units are joined together through covalent bonds. 
The process by which polymers are synthesized from their monomers is known as polymerization. 

Classification of Polymers Based on Source 

1. Natural Polymers: 
   These occur naturally in plants and animals. 
   Examples: Proteins, cellulose, starch, natural resins, and natural rubber. 
2. Semi-Synthetic Polymers: 
   These are chemically modified derivatives of natural polymers. 
   Examples: Cellulose acetate (rayon), cellulose nitrate, etc. 
3. Synthetic Polymers: 
   These are man-made polymers, widely used in everyday life and industries. 
   Examples: Plastics (like polythene), synthetic fibres (like nylon 6,6), and synthetic rubber (like Buna-S). 

Polymers can also be classified based on: 

• Structure (e.g., linear, branched, cross-linked) 
• Intermolecular forces (e.g., elastomers, fibres, thermoplastics, thermosetting) 
• Method of polymerization (e.g., addition or condensation polymerization) 

Introduction 

• The Press Information Bureau (PIB) was established in 1919 as a small cell. 
• Today, PIB operates with eight regional offices (Chennai, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Chandigarh, Guwahati, Lucknow, Kolkata, and Bhopal) and 34 branch offices across India. 

Role and Function 

• PIB serves as the nodal agency for disseminating information on the government’s policies, programmes, initiatives, and achievements to the print and electronic media. 
• It communicates through various mediums such as: 
  • Press releases 
  • Press notes 
  • Special articles 
  • Reference materials 
  • Photographs and video clips 
  • Press statements and conferences 
  • Interviews 
  • Databases available on the official PIB website 

Language and Media Reach 

• Information is published in English, Hindi, Urdu, and 13 regional languages. 
• PIB reaches out to approximately 8,400 newspapers and media organizations nationwide. 

Ministry Coordination 

• PIB officers are not only attached to their respective ministries but also actively promote the ministries' work through various media channels. 

Organizational Structure 

• PIB is headquartered in New Delhi. 
• It is headed by the Principal Director General (Media and Communication). 
• The hierarchy also includes a Deputy Director General and eight Additional Directors General. 

Digital and Social Media Outreach 

• In addition to its services on X (formerly Twitter) and YouTube, PIB has expanded to platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Vine, enhancing its reach to a wider digital audience. 
• The official PIB website is accessible in Hindi, English, and Urdu. 

Journalist Welfare Scheme 

• The Journalist Welfare Scheme is an initiative of PIB aimed at providing financial relief to journalists and their families. 
• Under the revised scheme: 
• A one-time ex-gratia assistance of ₹5 lakh may be granted in cases of death or permanent disability. 
  • Financial support can also be extended in cases of severe illnesses (e.g., cancer, brain hemorrhage) or accidents. 
  • Relief is provided only in situations of extreme hardship or distress.

• The Indian Institute of Mass Communication (IIMC) was established on 17 August 1965 with the assistance of UNESCO. 
• It is India’s premier media training institute, functioning under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 
• IIMC is an autonomous institution, registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. 

Headquarters and Regional Campuses 

• The headquarters of IIMC is located in New Delhi. 
• It has five regional centers in: 
  • Aizawl (Mizoram) 
  • Amravati (Maharashtra) 
  • Dhenkanal (Odisha) 
  • Kottayam (Kerala) 
  • Jammu & Kashmir 

Faculty and Infrastructure 

• IIMC is widely recognized for its experienced and permanent faculty and state-of-the-art infrastructure. 
• The faculty-to-student ratio is 1:8, which is considered superior to most media institutions in the country. 

Academic Programs 

• IIMC offers one-year Postgraduate Diploma courses in the following fields: 
  • Journalism in Hindi, English, and Oriya 
  • Advertising and Public Relations 
  • Radio and Television Journalism 
  • Photo Journalism 
• Training is provided across all forms of media, including: 
  • Print Media 
  • Photo Journalism 
  • Radio and TV Journalism 
  • Communication Research 
  • Advertising and Public Relations 

Specialized Training 

• Indian Information Service (IIS) officers receive professional training at IIMC. 
• It also conducts special courses in Development Journalism for participants from non-aligned and other developing countries. 

• United News of India (UNI) is a well-known news agency operating in India. 

Establishment and Growth 

• UNI was established in December 1959 under the Companies Act, 1956. 
• It officially started functioning on 21 March 1961. 

News Bureaus and Network 

• UNI has news bureaus in almost all state capitals and major cities across India. 
• Its network covers Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir. 

Language Services 

• On 1 May 1982, UNI launched its Hindi news service called 'Univarta'. 
• On 5 June 1992, the Urdu service was inaugurated by then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao. 
• UNI was the first Indian news agency to supply Urdu news internationally. 

Photo and Graphics Services 

• UNI’s photo service distributes about 200 photographs daily, including 60 international photos sourced from EPA (European Pressphoto Agency) and Reuters. 
• The graphics service distributes 5 to 6 graphics daily. 

International Presence 

• UNI correspondents provide news coverage from major global cities including: 
  • Washington, New York, London, Moscow, Dubai, Islamabad, 
  • Kathmandu, Colombo, Dhaka, Singapore, Toronto, Sydney, 
  • Bangkok, and Kabul. 

International Collaborations 

• UNI has signed news exchange agreements with several international agencies, such as: 
  • Xinhua (China) 
  • RIA Novosti (Russia) 
  • UNB (Bangladesh) 
  • Anadolu (Turkey) 
  • WAM (UAE) 
  • GNA (Bahrain) 
  • KUNA (Kuwait) 

• The Gram Nyayalaya Act, 2008 was enacted by the Ministry of Law and Justice to make the justice delivery system more accessible to the common people. Under this act, Gram Nyayalayas started functioning in some states from October 2, 2009. 
• A Gram Nyayalaya is presided over by a Nyayadhikari, who holds the powers of a First Class Judicial Magistrate. The Nyayadhikari is appointed by the State Government in consultation with the High Court of the respective state. 
• Gram Nyayalayas have jurisdiction over both civil and criminal cases. The types of cases they handle are specified in the Schedule of the Gram Nyayalaya Act. 
• In criminal matters, the Gram Nyayalaya handles offences punishable with imprisonment up to two years. 
• In civil matters, it deals with cases related to: 
  • Minimum Wages Act, 1948 
  • Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 
  • Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 
  • Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 
• In civil cases, efforts are made to resolve disputes through mutual settlement. 
• In criminal cases, the system of Plea Bargaining is adopted, where the accused may voluntarily accept guilt for a lighter sentence and quicker resolution. 

On July 5, 2021, the Ministry of Education launched the National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat). 

• The launch of NIPUN Bharat is a key initiative under the implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which was released on July 29, 2020. 
• The vision of NIPUN Bharat is to ensure that every child in India attains foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) by the end of Grade 3 by 2026–27. 
• The mission aims to create an enabling learning environment to ensure children can read with comprehension and solve basic mathematical problems at the foundational level. 
• NIPUN Bharat will be implemented by the Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Education, Government of India. 
• A five-tier implementation mechanism will be established at the national, state, district, block, and school levels, covering all States and Union Territories under the centrally sponsored Samagra Shiksha Yojana. 

Eye donation is a life-changing gift for individuals suffering from corneal blindness or visual impairment. 

Who Can Donate Eyes? 

• Any individual—regardless of gender, age, or social status—can donate eyes, even if they wear spectacles or have minor refractive errors. 
• People who wear glasses can still donate eyes. 

Who Cannot Donate Eyes? 

Individuals suffering from the following conditions cannot donate eyes: 

• AIDS (HIV) 
• Hepatitis B or C 
• Rabies 
• Leukemia 
• Tetanus 
• Cholera 
• Brain infections 

Infectious or terminal diseases make the donor ineligible. 

Important Guidelines for Eye Donation 

• Eyes must be donated within 4–6 hours of death, whether the person passed away at home or in a hospital. 
• The individual should pledge for eye donation during their lifetime by registering with a recognized eye bank. 
• The pledge should be informed to close family members so they can carry out the donor’s wish. 

Pledging in advance and informing family is essential. 

Other Contributions 

A person can also donate a Braille kit to support the education and empowerment of the visually impaired. 

X-ray technology is used to capture images of bones, tissues and muscles inside the human body. It works by producing a controlled beam of X-rays and directing it toward the area to be examined. 

Medical Uses of X-Rays 

• To detect bone fractures. 
• To diagnose joint injuries and infections. 
• To identify blockages in arteries. 
• To examine causes of stomach pain. 
• To detect cancer. 
• To eliminate uncontrolled germs when they multiply excessively. 

Other Applications of X-Rays 

• In surgeries for medical imaging and diagnosis. 
• In metallurgy for detecting structural flaws in metals. 
• In industries for quality control and security screening. 

Harmful Effects of X-Rays 

• X-rays can damage living tissues and cells. 
• Excessive exposure can destroy living cells. 
• Repeated exposure to X-rays in the same area increases the risk of cancer. 
• Unnecessary or prolonged exposure should be avoided to minimize health risks. 

• When Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru initiated nuclear research in independent India, Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha was appointed as the first Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission. Initially, India adopted the principle of ‘Atoms for Peace’, focusing on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. 
• However, after the 1971 Bangladesh crisis, and recognizing the possibility of China supporting Pakistan in nuclear development, India began to reconsider its nuclear policy seriously. Notably, China had already become a nuclear power in 1964 by conducting its first nuclear test. 
• In response to geopolitical shifts, particularly growing ties between China and the U.S., India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 at Pokhran, code-named ‘Operation Smiling Buddha’. India clarified it was a Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE). 
• India has refused to sign the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), viewing it as discriminatory, since it recognizes only five nuclear weapon states (U.S., U.K., France, China, Russia). 
• During 1991–96, PM P.V. Narasimha Rao considered nuclear testing but did not proceed. Later, in May 1998, under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Pokhran-II was conducted secretly, after which India officially declared itself a nuclear weapon state. 
• India has not signed the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) either. 
• India’s nuclear policy is guided by: 
  • Credible Minimum Deterrence 
  • No First Use Policy 
  • Massive retaliation in case of nuclear attack to neutralize enemy capability 
  • Retaliation decisions lie solely with the Nuclear Command Authority 
  • Support for global nuclear disarmament, emphasizing non-discriminatory frameworks 
  • Use of nuclear weapons remains an option in response to nuclear or biological attacks 
  • Strict export control of nuclear and missile technology and materials 

This doctrine emphasizes transparency, accountability, and robustness, reflecting India’s sovereign and democratic values. 

The primary aim of Technology Vision 2035 is to ensure security, enhanced prosperity, and dignity for every Indian citizen. This goal is stated as "Our Aspiration" or "Vision Statement" in the document and is presented in all the languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. 

The document outlines 12 core privileges—six individual and six collective—that every Indian should have access to: 

Individual Privileges 

1. Clean air and safe drinking water 
2. Food and nutrition security 
3. Universal healthcare and public sanitation 
4. 24x7 electricity access 
5. Improved housing facilities
6. Quality education, livelihood opportunities, and scope for creativity 

Collective Privileges 

1. Safe and rapid transportation 
2. Public safety and national defense 
3. Cultural diversity and vibrancy 
4. Transparent and efficient governance 
5. Disaster resilience and climate adaptability 
6. Environmentally responsible resource conservation 

According to the document, these privileges are central to India’s future technological roadmap. Technologies are categorized into four types to support this vision: 

• Technologies ready for immediate deployment 
• Technologies transitioning from lab to application 
• Technologies requiring targeted research 
• Imaginative or 'blue sky' technologies yet to be fully realized 

Examples of blue sky technologies include: 
Internet of Things (IoT), wearable devices, synthetic biology, brain-computer interfaces, bio-printing, regenerative medicine, along with precision agriculture, robotic farming, vertical farming, interactive food systems, autonomous vehicles, bioluminescence, 3D printing of buildings, earthquake forecasting, climate-tech innovations, and green mining. 

These emerging technologies aim to meet the needs of both present and future generations sustainably and inclusively. 

 Overview 

• Pod Taxi, also known as Personal Rapid Transit (PRT), is a feeder and shuttle transport system designed for small groups of up to 5 passengers. 
• It offers seamless, last-mile connectivity and is considered more cost-effective than metro systems. 

Features 

• Operates at a height of 5–10 meters above the ground, using a wireless, sensor-based and command-controlled system. 
• Provides comfortable travel in all weather conditions and can navigate densely populated areas, narrow roads and existing ground-level traffic with ease. 
• As an Automated People Mover (APM), it is: 
• Environmentally friendly 
• Time, fuel and cost-efficient 

Project Details 

• The Pod Taxi project is a pilot initiative implemented under the DBFOT model (Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer) through a Public-Private Partnership (PPP). 
• The initial phase of the project, with an investment of ₹4,000 crore, will cover a distance of 12.3 km, from the Delhi-Haryana border on NH-8 to Gurugram via Rajiv Chowk. 
• The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has been given the responsibility to execute and complete the project. 

Early Life and Background 

• Plato was born in 428 BCE into an aristocratic family in the city-state of Athens. 
• His real name was Aristocles, but he was given the name ‘Plato’ by his teacher Socrates. 

Educational Contributions 

• At the age of around 40, Plato founded the ‘Academy’ in Athens, one of the earliest institutions of higher learning in the Western world. 
• He taught there for the next 40 years of his life. 
• Knowledge of mathematics was essential for admission into the Academy. The famous inscription at the entrance reportedly read: 
  “Let no one ignorant of geometry enter here.” 
• Along with mathematics, subjects like politics, law and philosophy were also emphasized in the Academy. 

Political Involvement and Later Life 

• Around 361 BCE, when Plato was about 70 years old, he travelled to Syracuse to implement his idea of the ‘ideal state’. 
• He supported his friend Dion under the rule of Dionysius. 
• In his later years, Plato wrote his final and significant work, ‘The Laws’. 
• Plato died at the age of 81, reportedly during the wedding ceremony of one of his students. 

Major Works of Plato 

• Plato is believed to have authored around 38 works, of which 28 are considered authentic. Here are some of his notable writings: 
  • The Republic – His most famous work, where he discusses justice, the ideal state, and the philosopher-king. (Plato’s most enthusiastic philosophical expression) 
  • The Statesman – Reflects a more pessimistic tone, likely influenced by his failed experiment in Syracuse. 
  • The Laws – His last and longest dialogue, focusing on practical legal and political theory. 
  • The Symposium – A dialogue on love and beauty. 
  • The Allegory of the Cave – A part of The Republic, illustrating his theory of forms and knowledge. 
  • The Apology of Socrates – Describes the trial and death sentence of Socrates. 
  • Meno – Discusses whether virtue can be taught. 
  • Phaedo – Deals with the immortality of the soul. 
  • Gorgias – A critique of rhetoric and moral relativism. 
  • Timaeus – Presents Plato’s views on cosmology and the physical world. 
  • The Socratic Dialogues – A collection of dialogues that present Socrates’ philosophical ideas. 

• Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy, founder of Bengal Chemicals, is widely regarded as the Father of Indian Chemistry. 
• His notable works include the History of Hindu Chemistry. His autobiography, Life and Experiences of a Bengali Chemist, published in two volumes, is among his finest contributions. This work not only sheds light on his personal journey but also provides insights into the intellectual history of Bengal and India. 
• He was among the first Indian students to receive the Gilchrist Scholarship, and in 1887, he earned the prestigious Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree. 
• While preparing water-soluble mercurous nitrate as an intermediate to explore unknown elements of Mendeleev’s periodic table, he systematically analyzed many rare minerals. During this research, he discovered mercurous nitrite in 1896, a compound previously unrecognized by the scientific community. 
• He later remarked that the discovery of mercurous nitrite marked a new chapter in his life. Another significant contribution was the production of pure ammonium nitrite. 
• In 1911, the British government honoured him with the title of ‘Knight’ for his scientific contributions. 
• In 1933, Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, founder of Banaras Hindu University, awarded him an honorary D.Sc. degree in recognition of his achievements. 
• Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy was not only a renowned scientist but also a visionary educationist and a key architect of modern India. 

• Bimbisara was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty and a powerful ruler of Magadha. 
• He ascended the throne at the age of 15 and ruled for approximately 52 years. 
• Also known as ‘Shrenik’ (as mentioned in Jain literature), Haryanka dynasty kings used the titles Shrenik and Kshetrojas. 
• Magadha gained significant prominence during his reign, with Rajgriha as its capital. 
• Bimbisara expanded his empire through strategic matrimonial alliances: 
  • Mahakoshala Devi – Daughter of Koshal King and sister of Prasenjit. Received Kashi province as dowry, which yielded an annual revenue of one lakh coins. 
  • Chelna (Chhalna) – Lichchhavi princess from Vaishali, mother of Ajatashatru. 
  • Kshema – Princess from the Madra clan of Punjab. 
• Through these alliances, Bimbisara strengthened Magadha’s political influence and facilitated its expansion towards the west and north. 
• Conquest of Anga Kingdom: 
  • He defeated and annexed Anga and appointed his son Ajatashatru as its ruler. 
• Relations with Avanti: 
  • Established friendly ties with Chandpradyot, the ruler of Avanti, and sent his royal physician Jeevak for his treatment. 
• Bimbisara was assassinated by his son Ajatashatru in 492 BCE, who then ascended the throne of Magadha. 
• Chief Officers during Bimbisara’s reign: 
  • Sarvathak Mahamatra – General Administration 
  • Commander Mahamatra – Chief Officer of the Army 

• Entering the Sangha was called Upasampada. Those who joined the Sangha were initially given the status of Shramana, and after 10 years, upon fulfilling the required qualifications, they were elevated to the status of Bhikshu. 
• Restrictions: Minors (below 15 years), thieves, murderers, debtors, slaves and sick individuals were prohibited from entering the Sangha. 
• Women in the Sangha: After much persuasion by Ananda, Buddha allowed women to join the Sangha. 
• Republican System: The Buddhist Sangha was structured on a republican system. It was open to people of all castes, thereby opposing the Varna and caste system. 
• Decision-making: Proposals (Natti) were recited in the assembly, a process called Anusavana. The minimum quorum required for valid proceedings was 20. 
• Observances & Rituals: 
  • Uposatha – Observed on the new moon, full moon and two Chaturthi days (fasting days). 
  • Patimokkha – The recitation of rules and prohibitions in the monks' assembly. Members confessed their rule violations in this assembly. A committee of senior monks would assess serious offenses and decide penance or expulsion from the Sangha. 
  • Pavaran – The confession ceremony during the rainy season, when monks stayed in monasteries. 
• Buddha Purnima: The most sacred Buddhist festival falls on the full moon of Vaishakh. This day holds great significance as it marks Buddha’s birth, enlightenment and Mahaparinirvana (death). 
• Categories of Followers: 
  • Bhikshus & Bhikshunis – Those who renounced worldly life. 
  • Upasakas – Lay followers who practiced Buddhism while living a family life. 

• Information technology is considered the fourth revolution in the development of human civilization, with digital technology forming its basic foundation. In this technology, information is transmitted by converting data into binary form (0, 1). Modern computer systems operate based on this technology, which offers the following advantages: 
  • High quality of data, images and messages 
  • Increased communication capacity and intensity of information 
  • Reduced possibility of errors and minimal external interference 
• The concept of the Global Village has become meaningful through digital technology, as it enables instant information exchange between even the most remote locations via satellites. 
• A developing country like India is also progressing rapidly due to this technology. However, alongside this progress, a significant technical challenge has emerged, known as the "Digital Divide." 
• The Digital Divide refers to the growing economic gap based on the use of digital technology both within countries and internationally, which in turn exacerbates social inequalities. 
• In essence, the Digital Divide highlights the increasing socio-economic inequality arising from unequal access to digital technology. 
• To address this issue, the concept of "Digital Convergence" is being promoted. 
• The Government of India has adopted a dual approach to bridge the Digital Divide: 

Infrastructural Development- 

• Development of infrastructure equipped with digital technology even in backward areas. 
• Establishment of Software Parks and Indian Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs) in locations like Guwahati and Prayagraj. 
• Connection of backward regions to major information centers through VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) technology. 
• Establishment of new educational centers to promote computer-based education across various parts of the country. 

Application Efforts- 

• Development of technologies to make digital knowledge accessible in local languages, requiring the creation of special software. 
• Provision of telemedicine via INSAT-3A and tele-education via GSAT-3 to remote areas. 
• Launch of a satellite named "GRAMSAT" to reduce the economic disparity between villages and cities, aiming for the sustainable development of rural areas. 
• Development of special software programs and networking solutions like SWAN (State Wide Area Network) to collect and manage land-related data in villages. 

DNA sequencing is the process of identifying the precise order of the nucleotide bases – adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G) – present in a DNA molecule. This technique plays a significant role in genetics and biotechnology. 

Key Benefits of DNA Sequencing 

• Human Genome Project: 
  The most remarkable example of DNA sequencing, where the entire human DNA was mapped for the first time. 
• Diagnosis of Genetic Diseases: 
  Helps in detecting and understanding genetic disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Cystic Fibrosis, Myotonic Dystrophy and various forms of Cancer. 
• Animal Lineage Tracking: 
  Assists in tracing the lineages of livestock, improving breeding programs and genetic quality. 
• Development of Disease-Resistant Species: 
  Facilitates the genetic development of animals to resist specific diseases. 
• Understanding Genetic Causes of Diseases: 
  Enables researchers to identify the causes of certain gene-related diseases, although not all diseases can be explained solely through gene sequencing. 
• Innovative Treatment Methods: 
  Plays a crucial role in the discovery of new treatments and therapies for genetic conditions. 
• Disease Prevention: 
  Makes it possible to predict and prevent diseases before symptoms even appear, promoting early detection and personalized healthcare. 

• 'Bhuvan' is a geo-platform software developed by ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) that enables users to view any region of India in a three-dimensional (3D) format over the internet. Similar to Google Earth and Wikimapia, it allows exploration of terrestrial areas from various altitudes. 
• The software supports multiple Indian languages, including English, Hindi, Tamil, and Telugu. 
• High-resolution images of over 300 Indian cities are accessible through the Bhuvan platform. 
• Bhuvan plays a significant role in disaster management, aiding in the assessment and response to natural calamities. 
• It provides valuable data on environmental parameters, national highways, and navigation, which is useful for planning and monitoring. 
• Bhuvan is actively used in national initiatives like the 'Clean Ganga' mission. It supports tools such as the 'Bhuvan Ganga Portal' and 'Bhuvan Ganga Mobile Application' for environmental monitoring. 
• Through the 'Bhuvan-GAIL Portal', GAIL (Gas Authority of India Limited) utilizes Bhuvan for pipeline security and maintenance using space-based technology. 
• However, Bhuvan has certain limitations: 
  • It currently operates only on Internet Explorer. 
  • Users face issues such as slow performance and mandatory registration. 

• Whenever there is a discussion on Paleobotany in India, the name of Prof. Birbal Sahni is taken with utmost respect. He introduced the scientific community to India’s rich fossil flora. 
• Birbal Sahni is regarded as the Father of Indian Paleobotany. 
• Prof. Sahni made significant discoveries regarding the origin of plants and plant fossils in India. His work was grounded in multiple branches of biology, making it interdisciplinary and pioneering. 
• His contributions were so extensive that no aspect of paleobotany in India remained untouched by his research. He authored several notable books on botany, and his research papers were widely published in respected scientific journals. 
• In 1919, Prof. Sahni was awarded the Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree from the University of London for his groundbreaking research on fossil plants. 
• Besides botany, he had a deep interest in archaeology and was well-versed in geology. His research on the techniques of coin minting in ancient India is considered a valuable contribution to archaeological studies. 
• In recognition of his extraordinary scientific contributions, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1936—one of the highest honours for a scientist. 
• The institute he founded in Lucknow is today known as the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, which was inaugurated by India’s first Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, in 1949. 
• Prof. Sahni was not only a brilliant scientist but also a lover of art and music. 
• To honour his legacy, the Indian Science Congress has instituted the Birbal Sahni Award, presented to the best botanist in India.